-
Environmental Management Development
in Indonesia Project (EMDI)

EMDI
The Environmental Management Development in Indonesia Project (EMDI) is designed to upgrade
environmental management capabilities through institutional strengthening and human resource
development. A joint project of th� Ministry of State for Environment (LH) and the School for
Resource & Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, EMDI supports LH's mandate to
provide guidance and leadership to Indonesian agencies and organizations responsible for
implementing environmental management and sustainable development. Linkages between
Indonesian and Canadian organizations and individuals in the area of environmental management
are also fostered.
Currently in its third phase, EMDI has received generous funding from the Canadian International
Development Agency at each stage. CIDA provided C$2.5 million to EMDI-l (1983-1986),
C$7.7 million of EMDI-2 (1986-1989), and is contributing C$31.1 million (base budget) to
EMDI-3 (1989-1994). Significant contributions, direct and in kind, have been made by LH and
Dalhousie University.
EMDI-3 emphasizes spatial planning and regional environmental management, environmental
impact assessment, environmental standards, hazardous and toxic substance management, marine
and coastal environmental management, environmental information systems, and environmental
law. The opportunity for further study is offered through fellowships and intemships for qualified
individuals. Within the publications program, The Ecology of Indonesia Series is supported.
Linkages with NGOs and the private sector are encouraged.
EMDI supports the University Consortium on the Environment comprising Universitas Gadjah
Mada, Universitas Indonesia, Institut Teknologi Bandung, the University of Waterloo, and York
University. Included in EMDI activities at Dalhousie University are research fellowships and
exchanges for senior professionals in Indonesia and Canada, and assistance for Dalhousie graduate
students undertaking thesis research in Indonesia.
For further information about the EMDI Project, please call or write:
EMDI Project
School for Resource
&Environmental Studies
Dalhousie University
1312 Robie Street
Halifax,N.S. Canada B3H 3E2
Tel: 902-494-3632
Fax: 902-494-1485
Cosy: EMDIHFX
Telex: 019-21863
Envoy: SRES
or
ProyekEMDI
Kantor Menteri Negara
Lingkungan Hidup
Jl. Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta 10 110
Indonesia
Tel: 62-21-251-1574 or 62-21-251-1427
Fax: 62-21-251-1595
Cosy: EMDIJKT

Marine Biodiversity Management

EMDI Environmental Reports, 44
Marine Biodiversity Management
prepared by
Reginald A. Watson
for the
Environmental Management
Development in Indonesia Project (EMDI)
Halifax
School for Resource and Environmental Studies
Dalhousie University
Jakarta
Ministry of State for Environment
1995

Environmental Management Development in Indonesia
EMDI is a joint project of the Ministry of State for Environment, Government of Indonesia, and
the School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Canada. It is funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CID A).
EMDI Project
School for Resource
and Environmental Studies
Dalhousie University
1312 Robie Street
Halifax, Nova Scotia
B3H3E2
ProyekEMDI
Kantor Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup
11. Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta 10010
Indonesia
This work was completed in 1993.
@1995 Dalhousie University. All rights reserved.
Kantor Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup.
Hak cipta dilindungi oleh undang-undang.
Published 1995
Printed by Dalhousie Printing Centre
Edited by: Shama K. Vethamany
Word processing by: JWD Communications
Series Co-ordinator: Shama K. Vethamany
About the Author:
Reginald A. Watson, 4, Perch Court, Sorrento, WA 6020, Australia.
Canadian Cataloging in Publication
Watson, Reginald A.
Marine biodiversity management
(EMDI environmental reports, ISSN 1181-6457 ; 44)
Co-published by the Indonesian Ministry of State for Environment.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-7703-8901-5
1. Biological diversity conservation --Indonesia. 2. Marine resources conservation --Indonesia.
I. Environmental Management Development in Indonesia (project). 11. Dalhousie University.
School for Resource and Environmental Studies. Ill. Indonesia. Kantor Menteri Negara
Lingkungan Hidup. IV. Title. V. Series.
QH186. W37 1995 333. 95 . 216 . 09598 C95-950218-1

CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Page
ix
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xiii
1. Objectives 1
2. Performance Indicators 1
3. Milestones 1
4. Progress 1
S. Overview 4
Appendices 7
1. Biodiversity in the Coastal Zone (A lecture given at the Integrated
Resource Management Course). 11
References 19
2. National Strategy for Marine Biodiversity Management 21
Executive Summary 23
1. Introduction 25
2. Goals and Objectives 25
2.1 Goals
25
2.2 Objectives 26
3. Policy 26
3.1 Save It 26
3.1.1 Community Awareness and Participation 27
3.1.2 Management of Existing Marine Conservation Areas 27
3.1.3 Priority Marine Flora and Fauna 28
3.1.4 Enforcement of Regulations Protecting Marine Conservation Areas 28
3.1.5 Creation of New Marine Conservation Areas 29
3.1.6 Management ofImpacts on Marine Biodiversity 29
3.1.7 Marine Training and Education 29
3.2 Study It 30
3.2.1 Marine Biodiversity Databases 30
3.2.2 Marine Ecosystem Inventories 32
3.2.3 Document and Mitigate Human Effects on Marine Biodiversity 33
3.2.4 Taxonomic Reference Collections 34
3.2.5 Institutional Strengthening
34
3.3 Use It Sustainably 35
3.3.1 Exploitation of Marine Biodiversity 35
4. Action Plan 36
4.1 Community Awareness 36
v

Contents
4.1.1 Increase Public Understanding of the Significance of Marine
Biodiversity by Providing Information in theMass Media and
Extension Programs 36
4.1.2 Increase the Public's Sense of Belonging of and Responsibility
for the Preservation of Local Marine Biodiversity 37
4.1.3 Inform Tourists and Tourist Industry Staff of the Protected
Status of Indonesia's Endangered Marine Species 37
4.1.4 Establish and Develop Marine Museums Both at Regional
and National Levels 37
4.1.5 Support NGOs Efforts to Undertake Marine Education for
the Community 38
4.1.6 Increase Participation in Improving Nearshore Water Quality 38
4.2 Management of Existing Marine Protected Areas 38
4.2.1 Manage Marine Protected Areas 38
4.2.2 Provide Experience for Government Officers to
Improve Marine Biodiversity Management 39
4.3 Improve Enforcement 39
4.3.1 Improve Enforcement of Laws Protecting Endangered Species 40
4.4 Appropriate Management of Marine Habitats 40
4.4.1 Conserve Estuaries, Wetlands and Mangrove Ecosystems 40
4.4.2 Conserve Coral Reef Ecosystems 43
4.4.3 Add Seagrass Ecosystems to the Criteria for Designating
Marine Conservation Areas, and to Protect the Habitat of
Protected Marine Species Such as Sea Turtles and Dugong 43
4.5 Planning and AMDAL Processes 43
4.5.1 Extend the use of Spatial use Management in Marine Development 43
4.5.2 Determine the Economic Value of Marine Biodiversity for
Project Planning Purposes 44
4.6 Education Curriculum 44
4.6.1 Include Educational Material on Marine Biodiversity in the
Biology and Ecology Lessons in the National Curriculum
from Elementary School to University 44
4.7 GIS Databases 45
4.7.1 Develop a Marine Biodiversity Database System 45
4.8 Inventories 46
4.8.1 Complete and Update Inventories for Existing Marine
Conservation Areas 46
4.8.2 Complete Large-Scale, Coarse, Habitat Surveys of Known
High Biodiversity Areas Outside of Existing Marine
Conservation Areas 46
4.8.3 Increase the Skills and Productivity of Taxonomists 46
4.9 Effects of Human Activities 47
4.9.1 Evaluate Pollution Threats to Marine Biodiversity 47
4.9.2 Evaluate Effects of Harvesting on Marine Biodiversity 47
4.9.3 Study Ecological Restoration 48
4.9.4 Research Monitoring Methods 48
4.10 Library and Reference Collections 48
4.10.1 Improve University Libraries and Public libraries Services Related
to Marine Conservation and Marine Biodiversity Management 48
4.10.2 Improve Taxonomic Reference Collections and Museum Facilities 49
4.11 Sustainable Use 49
4.11.1 Research the Sustainable use of Marine Biodiversity 49
4.11.2 Marine Biotechnology 49
vi

Contents
4.11.3 Characterise Socio-Economic Aspects of Critical Marine Areas 50
4.11.4 Marine and Brackish-water Culture 50
4.11.5 Develop Community Participation in Sustainable Fishing Practises 51
4.11.6 Encourage the use of Endemic Species for Mariculture 51
4.11.7 Marine Ecotourism 51
3. National Strategy for Marine Biodiversity Management: Technical
Appendix
53
1. Introduction 55
1.1 Background 55
1.1.1 Defmitions of Biodiversity 55
1.1.2 Significance of Marine Biodiversity 56
1.1. 3 Measures of B iodi versity 57
1.1.4 History of Marine Biodiversity Related Issues in Indonesia 57
1.1.5 Knowledge of Marine Resources in Indonesia 58
1.1.6 Marine Resource Databases in Indonesia 59
1 .2 Legal Basis
1.2.1 Legislation
1.2.2 Enforcement
1.2.3 Conflicting Legislation
1.2.4 Conflict Resolution
60
60
61
61
62
1.3 Methods of Funding Marine Biodiversity Management 62
1.3.1 National and Local Level 62
1.3.2 International Level 63
2. Current Management Conditions and Issues 63
2.1 Community Awareness and Participation 63
2.2 Institutional Roles in Marine Biodiversity Management 64
2.2.1 Research 64
2.2.2 Mapping 65
2.2.3 Support Services 65
2.2.4 Management 66
2.2.5 Training 66
2.2.6 Coordination 66
2.2.7 Planning 66
2.3 Conservation of Marine Areas 66
2.4 Existing and Proposed Marine Conservation Strategies 67
2.4.1 National Strategy and Action Plan for Coastal Villages Development 67
2.4.2 National Contingency Plan 67
2.4.3 National Strategy and Action Plan of Marine Turtle Conservation
and Management 68
2.4.4 National Strategy and Action Plan for Coral Reef Ecosystem
Conservation and Management 68
2.4.5 Proposed National Strategy and Action Plan for Mangrove
Ecosystem Conservation and Management 68
2.4.6 Proposed National Strategy and Action Plan for Seagrass
Ecosystem Conservation and Management 68
2.4.7 Proposed National Strategy and Action Plan for Marine Tourism 68
2.5 Relationship Between Marine and Terrestrial Biodiversity
Management 69
2.5.1 National Strategy on Biodiversity Management 69
2.5.2 Joint Terrestrial and Marine Approaches 69
2.5.3 Freshwater Systems 69
2.6 Uses and Values of Marine Biodiversity 69
2.6.1 Use of Marine Biodiversity 69
2.6.2 Value of Marine Biodiversity 72
vii

Contents
2.7 Inland Development
2.8 Marine Development
2.9 Threats to Marine Biodiversity
2.9.1 Habitat Destruction
2.9.2 Exploitation
2.9.3 Species Intto<luctions
2.9.4 Global Climate Changes
2.10 Financial Support and Collaborations
2.10.1 Global
2.10.2 Regional
2.10.3 Inter-governmental
2.10.4 Private Sector
2.11 International Agreements and Conventions
72
73
73
73
74
75
75
75
75
76
76
77
77
References
78
81
81
83
Tables
1 History of Issues Related to Marine Biodiversity in Indonesia
2 Marine and Coastal Zone Management Legislation in Indonesia
Appendices 84
A Marine Biodiversity Management in Indonesia Technical Team 84
B Priority Marine Fauna and Flora 87
2.1 Priority Marine Fauna 88
2.2 Priority Marine Flora 89
2.3 Preliminary Shortlist of Birds Considered as Significant
Species in Coastal and Marine Areas 90
C Priority Marine Management Areas 92
3.1 Priority Marine Protected Areas in Indonesia 92
3.2 Proposed New Wetland Reserves and Extensions to Existing Reserves 93
D Marine Flora and Fauna of Known or Suspected Bioactive or Medical Value 95
E Commitments made to the National Strategy for Marine Biodiversity
Management by Various Indonesian Government Agencies 97
5.1 Directorate General PHP A 97
5.2 Directorate General of Fisheries 102
5.3 Directorate General of Tourism 107
5.4 Indonesian Institute of Science (LIP!) 109
F Glossary of Technical Terms and Abbreviations 115
G List of Abbreviations and Agency Names 117
4. Marine Biodiversity and Indonesia: the Advisor's Final Presentation
Made at National Marine Biodiversity Workshop, June, 1993 121
viii

ADB
AMDAL
ANDAL
APEC
AWB
BAKOSURTANAL
BANGDA
BPN
BAPPENAS
BPPL
BPPT
CBA
CFCs
CIDA
CITES
CITIES
cm
CONSEA
DISHIDROS
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Asian Development Bank
Environmental Impact Analysis
The acronym ANDAL (analisis dampak lingkungan) is restricted in its
usage to a detailed assessment report for new projects. An ANDAL report
analyses the potential significant environmental effects, positive and
negative, generated by a project and identifies and evaluates possible
solutions. AMDAL (analisis mengenai dampak lingkungan) refers to the
entire environmental assessment process.-Ed.
Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation
Asian Wetland Bureau
Badan Koordinasi Survey dan Pemetaan Nasional
(National Coordinating Board for Surveys and Mapping)
Pembangunan Daerah
(Directorate General of Regional Development, Ministry of Home
Affairs)
Badan Pertanahan Nasional
(National Land Board)
Badan Perencanaan Penhangunan Daerah
(National Development Planning Agency)
Balai Penilitian Perikanan Laut
(Research Institute for Marine Fisheries)
Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi
(Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology)
Cost Benefit Analysis
Chlorofluorocarbons
Canadian International Development Agency
Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora
and Fauna. 1987.
Convention on International Trade and Endangered Species Agreement
centimetre
Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia. A UNEP Program.
Hydro-Oceanographic Service of the Navy
ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms
DG
DML
EIA
EMDI
FAO
g
GIS
ha
INFIS
INTAG
IPB,Bogor
ruCN
KLH
LH
LIPI
MB
MMB
MREP
NBMP
NGOs
NMBIC
NRMP
Directorate General
Dana Mitra Lingkungan
An NGO Organization
Environmental Impact Analysis
Environmental Management Development in Indonesia
Food and Agriculture Organization ofU.N.
gram
Geographic Infonnation Systems
hectares
Infonnation Fisheries System
National Forest Inventory
Institut Pertanian Bogor
(Institute of Agriculture, Bogor)
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Kantor Menteri Negara Kependudukan clan Lingkungan Hidup
(The Ministry of State for Population and Environment, until April
1993. At this time the Environment part of this Ministry became
Kantor Menteri Negara Lingkungan HiduP [LH]-ed.)
Kantor Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup
(The Minstry of State for Environment [See also KLH]-ed.)
Lembaga I1mu Pengetaluum Indonesia
(The Indonesian Institute of Sciences)
Lembaga Penkajian Pembangunan Pedesaan clan Masyaraka
(Institute for the Village and Community Development Studies)
Marine Biodiversity
Management of Marine Biodiversity
Marine Resource Evaluation and Planning Study
National Biodiversity Management Programme
Non-Governmental Organizations
National Marine Biodiversity Inventory Centre or National Marine
Biodiversity Data and Infonnation Centre
Natural Resources Management Project
x

PHPA
PPA
PPNS
PSL
RIMF
SMS
TAC
TNC
UNCED
UNCLOS
UNEP
UNESCO
USAID
WALI-ll
WRI
WWF
ye
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi
(Centre for Oceanology Research and Development)
Centre for Research and Development in Biology (part of LIP I)
Pusat Data Kelautan
(Marine Data Centre)
Perlingdungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam
(Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation,
Bogor)
Perlindungan dan Pelestarian Alam
(Nature Protection and Conservation)
Penyidikan Pegawai Negeri Sipil
(Government Officer, Authority in Investigation)
Pusat Studi Lingkungan
(Environmental Study Centres associated with Indonesian Universities)
Research and Development Centre for Oceanology
Research Institute for Marine Fisheries
Safe Minimum Standard
Total Allowable Catch
Nature Conservancy
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982.
United Nations Environmental Program
United NationS Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
The United States Agency for International Development
Wahana Lingkungan Hidup
(Indonesian Environmental Forum-Umbrella Organization for
Indonesian NGOs)
World Resources Institute
Worldwide Fund for Nature (In the U.S., referred to as World Wildlife
Fund)
year
xi

PREFACE
Biodiversity management, and particularly the management of marine biodiversity, presents
Indonesia with as many challenges as it does opportunities. Sustaining the current rapid economic
development will place considerable strain on all aspects of environmental management in
Indonesia. Social pressures will tempt officials to rationalize considerable losses in environmental
quality in the name of "improved living standards".
Indonesia is blessed with natural resources including its incredible variety of plants and animals.
Indonesia's "megadiversity" is perhaps second to none in the world. This is just the known
biodiversity resources; Indonesia is an archipelago, 78% of which consists of relatively unexplored,
tropical seas. How much greater will Indonesia's biodiversity resources be when these seas have
been thoroughly explored?
Marine habitats do not get the attention they deserve. People are terrestrial creatures and naturally,
concentrate their attention on terrestrial habitats. More worrying is the fact that we cannot observe
damage to the marine environment as we would on land. We think of the sea as a huge unknown
area, an incredible sink capable of absorbing all our wastes and pollution, seemingly without
effect. Most seas and oceans lie outside the jurisdiction of states, and until recently they have been
ignored. Marine resources are common property resources -man has a history of destroying such
resources. The cost of environmental studies in the marine habitats can be several times what it is
on land; the cost of not doing them is incalculable.
Though most of the opportunities may develop later, the challenges have already started. Indonesia
must conserve its rich marine biodiversity for future generations through the use of multi-use,
integrated marine protected areas, supported by effective enforcement, an informed public, and
active community involvement. Coordinated studies must determine the extent and nature of
biodiversity resources, their values and uses, the damage caused by human activities, and the means
to mitigate this damage. Biodiversity must maintain value through its ecologically sustainable and
equitable use.
To meet these challenges will require a strong, enduring commitment from government agencies,
universities, NGOs and the private sector. Improved coordination and cooperation will be required
because the resources to accomplish the task are limited. Jurisdictional disputes must be set aside
as there is simply too much to lose otherwise.
xiii

ACKNOWLE DGMENTS
I would like to generally acknowledge the support and cooperation of several agencies, especially
EMDI Project, LH, and the support services of EMDI Project and Dalhousie University in Halifax,
Canada. The enthusiasm and support of Barbara Patton and the library staff in Halifax were
essential in allowing access to the literature. I would also like to thank those agencies most
actively involved in the Technical Team, namely P30-LIPI, WWF, A WB, Fisheries and PHP A.
I extend my thanks and appreciation to all those who worked on the Technical Team especially,
Dr. Rokhmin Dahuri, Dr. Kasim Moosa, Dra. Rili Djohani and Drs. Max Zieren who willingly
gave up much of their own time to ensure the Team's success. I am grateful for the assistance of
Ir. Sugandhy's LH staff, especially Ir. Uktolseya's Marine and Coastal Staff in coordinating
meetings. I am especially grateful in this regard to Drs. Sudariyono.
I would like to acknowledge the support given to me by EMDI management and staff at Arthaloka,
especially, Ibu. Glenny and Pak Hedi. Ibu. Ani Kartikasari's help was invaluable in editing and
translation. My work depended on the support of EMDI staff at LH especially, Pauline Lawrence,
Ibu Poppy and Mia -thank you. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance, support, and advice
provided by other EMDI advisors, especially local advisors Purbasari and Arief Wicaksono, who
had the onerous task of compensating for my inadequacies, while simultaneously working for two
agencies. Marine Park Advisor, Jackie Alder, supported my activities through her professional
advice, and listened to my complaints so that no one else had to.
xv

1 . OBJECTIVES
After considerable discussion about the original Terms of Reference, it was agreed that a modified
set of objectives should be adopted. These objectives were:
1. Scope the problem of marine biodiversity management;
2. Coordinate activities of agencies involved;
3. Summarize databases of coastal/marine habitat and flora/fauna distribution;
4. Assist national initiatives of biodiversity; and
5. Assist in development of marine biodiversity policy.
2 . PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
In order to monitor monthly progress within the advisorship it was agreed to attempt developing a
set of Performance Indicators. Although these were developed in an ad hoc manner, late in the
advisorship, it was decided that these still had value; therefore they have been included here. These
indicators were:
1. Transfer of Technical Expertise on Marine Biodiversity (MB);
2. Completion of National MB Strategy;
3. Completion of National MB Action Plan;
4. Increasing recognition of LH's coordinating role in national MB programs;
5. Increasing coordination and liaison between agencies in MB programs;
6. Transfer of skills relevant to the formation of national strategies;
7. Scoping marine data holdings, marine inventories and marine database capabilities with
regard to MB; and
8. Assisting development of MB database and inventory capabilities.
3 . MILESTONES
The following were the major milestones of the advisorship (July, 1992 -July, 1993):
Establishment of a National Committee for the Management of Marine Biodiversity
(MMB) and its first coordinating meeting on 2nd December, 1992;
Establishment of a National Technical Team MMB and its meeting to develop an Action
Plan, 22-24th February, 1993;
Meetings of the National Technical Team MMB, 24th April, 1993, and 28th May, 1993,
to review and advance MMB National Strategy and Action Plan drafts; and
National Workshop for MMB [Lokakarya Pengelolaan Keanekaragaman Hayati Laut],
19th June, 1993.
4. PROGRESS
1. TRANSFER OF TECHNICAL EXPERTISE ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY
(MB)
There was considerable transfer of technical expertise on Marine Biodiversity (MB) and its
management. This was facilitated by:
1

EMDI Environmental Reports, No. 44
Lectures
On October 15th, I gave a 3-hour lecture on 'Coastal Biodiversity' to a course on
Integrated Coastal Resource Management at IPB, Bogor. This lecture was attended
by about 50 middle management government officers.
Technical Meetings
Some meetings involved seagrass habitats or red tide, but the majority were
specifically on marine biodiversity management and the development of a National
Strategy and Action Plan.
Regional Meetings
I spoke about the Marine Biodiversity program as part of LH's Laut Lestari
Program at meetings with regional government representatives in Mataram (5th
February, 1993), Denpasar (6th February, 1993), Biak (30th May, 1993) and
Jayapura (April 1st, 1993).
Workshops
I presented a paper on Marine Biodiversity Management in Indonesia on April 7th
at the International Workshop on The Coastal Management of Small Island
Ecosystems in Ambon which was attended by about 60-80 participants.
With LH staff, I organized the National Workshop for Marine Biodiversity Management on
June 19th, 1993, which was attended by 50 people. I made a presentation. The National
Strategy and Action Plan was presented and discussed.
2. COMPLETION OF NATIONAL MB STRATEGY
This process began in October 1992, when I began to write a draft of the Strategy which
was translated and reviewed at the 1st Coordination Meeting for the Formulation of the
National Strategy and Action Plan of Marine Biodiversity Management held December 2nd,
1992, in Jakarta.
Following this meeting, the Technical Team for Marine Biodiversity Management was
created, which met on February 22-24th, 1993, in Ciloto to review the second draft and its
translation. This process was repeated with a subsequent draft on 24th April, 1993. This
meeting dealt with an English language draft only as the local EMDI advisor left in March
and was not replaced until May. On May 28, a Technical Team meeting reviewed the
translation of a new draft
On June 19th, 1993, the draft National Strategy for Marine Biodiversity Management was
present to a National Workshop attended by 60 people, including senior representatives of
relevant government agencies, donor groups, NGOs, and the press. Presentations by
representatives constituted a public endorsement and commitment to the Strategy.
3. COMPLETION OF NATIONAL MB ACTION PLAN
The process was similar to that of the National Strategy except that the first draft resulted
largely from the first meeting of the Technical Team in Ciloto (February 22-24th, 1993).
The Action Plan was revised at subsequent meetings in the same way the Strategy was, and
was presented with the Strategy at the National Workshop on June 19th, 1993.
2

Marine Biodiversity Management
4. INCREASING RECOGNITION OF LH'S COORDINATING ROLE IN
NATIONAL MB PROGRA MS
There was considerable reinforcement and strengthening of LH's role in coordinating
national MB programs through the development of a National Strategy and Action Plan. LH
always acted as host to meetings and workshops. Their staff usually acted as chainnan or co­
chairman. Their logo was prominently displayed on material supplied at workshops etc.
Some meetings such as the June workshop, received press coverage and the Assistant
Minister was quoted.
LH's role is mainly confined to policy development and LIPI still claims control over
technical issues (databases etc.), while BAPPENAS still coordinates foreign aid support for
programs (funding implementation).
5. INCREASING COORDINATION AND LIAISON BETWEEN AGENCIES IN
MB PROGRAMS
Representatives from different agencies worked closely together to develop an Action Plan at
Technical Team meetings (February-June, 1993). This meant that P30-LIPI, PHPA, LH,
WWF , AWB and other agencies were cooperating with each other. Much technical and
procedural information was exchanged at these meetings. For example, PHP A explained the
process whereby marine conservation areas are created. This was followed by a discussion
with various agencies about the limitations of the present system and possible
improvements. According to the WWF representative this kind of frank discussion is very
rare.
6. TRANSFER OF SKILLS RELEVANT TO THE FORMATION OF NATIONAL
STRATEGIES
Through the 'hands-on' process of developing the National Strategy and Action Plan for
Marine Biodiversity Management, staff from LH, and particularly, local EMDI advisors,
became more proficient at developing such strategies. Hopefully, this will speed up the
process in the future, particularly since much marine policy remains to be developed by a
small number of staff.
In the process of coordinating the Strategy formulation, LH staff made many contacts with
other agencies. These contacts are invaluable as they mean that LH staff can rapidly call
upon a network of people for technical advice in the future.
7. SCOPING MARINE DATA HOLDINGS, MARINE INVENTORIES AND
MARINE DATABASE CAPABILITIES WITH REGARD TO MB
This process was initiated but not completed. In effect, the development of a National
Strategy and Action Plan was determined to be a higher priority and more in keeping with
LH's function. P30-LIPI, which claims jurisdiction in this area, has already initiated a
similar study which they will report to BAPPENAS. Our findings were discussed with LIPI
staff and some of them were presented in the Technical Appendix of the National Strategy.
Rather than directly contributing comprehensive information about the distribution of
marine habitats, the advisors hip contributed to defining the information that must be
collected and included in databases so that proper management can take place. The Strategy
gives recommendations on databases, information networks, and makes recommendations
for future survey work. I wrote several proposals aimed at improving the collection, storage
and use of marine resource data.
3

EMDI Environmental Reports. No. 44
8. ASSISTING TO IMPROVE MB DATABASE AND INVENTORY
CAPABILITIES
Progress was made in three ways in this area. Firstly, discussions were held with LIPI and
LH staff about the requirements for a MB database and some of this material appears in the
Technical Appendix of the National Strategy.
Secondly, I convinced LIPI staff to georeference their marine data so that it could be used in
GIS systems. Because P30-LIPI staff lacked sufficient funds and equipment to use GIS
systems such as SPANS, they planned to develop their own GIS system using DBase. By
introducing them to the use of inexpensive GIS systems such as Idrisi, I offered them a
better alternative.
Finally, I produced several proposals to attract funds to allow the expansion of the Marine
Data Centre at P30-LIPI and its role in marine biodiversity management. This proposal
included improving the capacity of other agencies as well.
5. OVERVIEW
The major threats to marine biodiversity are poverty and overpopulation, both clearly outside the
scope of my advisorship. Even without consideration of these social aspects, the process of marine
biodiversity management is an extremely complex one. It includes the processes of: gazetting
marine conservation areas through public consultation, zoning uses for marine protected areas,
conducting public awareness campaigns, enforcing conservation legislation, surveying marine
conservation areas and potential sites, studying man-induced threats and their mitigation, adding
marine biodiversity to educational curricula, developing comprehensive databases, developing
guidelines to use biodiversity in spatial planning, introducing programs to promote sustainable use
of marine resources, screening marine organisms for bioactive ingredients, supporting international
agreements such as CITES, and much more. Difficulties in implementing marine biodiversity
management are compounded by the way in which the responsibilities for these functions are
fragmented between agencies (as noted by EMDI advisor, J. Caldecou), some of which apparently
maintain little dialogue with each other. LH has a clear role in coordinating these activities, but
does not always receive the support and cooperation it requires to successfully undertake this
important task.
Clearly, improving inter-agency cooperation at the bureaucratic rather than the personal level is
beyond the scope of my advisorship. I believe that the first step toward Marine Biodiversity
Management is to have an agreed approach to the problem, and a general plan of attack. This
approach and plan is the National Strategy and Action Plan.
When I began my advisorship in July, 1993, a draft of the National Strategy on Biodiversity
Management already existed. Initially, it was suggested that my task would be to examine how
this document could be amended to include marine considerations (as it largely dealt with rainforest
habitats). Fragmentation of responsibility for biodiversity management meant that I was never
involved with this strategy. Instead. I was directed to make a new strategy - a strategy for marine
biodiversity. With some doubts as to the relationship between this new strategy and the existing
draft strategy, I began the task. LH staff provided guidance as to the procedures involved.
As I understood it then, the process was to bring together interested parties, whether from the
national government, the universities. NGOs or the private sector, and nominate a Technical
Team. The Technical Team would meet several times and develop a Strategy and Action Plan. This
document would then be presented at a public workshop. The workshop would publicize the
Strategy and Action Plan, attract comments and suggestions, and allow an opportunity for
implementing agencies to publicly show their support and implementation plans.
4

Marine Biodiversity Management
This is essentially the process that was followed. I, as major author of the document, had to rely
on comments from Technical Team members in order to modify a very generic, literature-based
document. Through this interaction, this document was developed to one which reflected the needs,
plans and abilities of the agencies involved. This process is very time-consuming. The individuals
representing agencies on the Technical Team are often those middle-management staff who
combine administrative and technical skills. These individuals are always extremely busy. Inter­
agency meetings coordinated by LH are usually chaired by the Assistant Minister. This individual
has an extremely busy schedule which is subject to abrupt change and includes lengthy periods
representing the Ministry overseas. Attempting to have a series of meetings with these participants
was very difficult to arrange which slowed progress considerably. Lack of cooperation even within
some departments meant that if representatives on the Technical Team could not attend or continue
to participate, then fmding a suitable replacement was difficult.
The possible size, completeness and composition of the Technical Team was based on
recommendations from LH staff. It reflected the availability of individuals, their willingness to be
involved, their technical expertise and their present relationship with LH. The Technical Team was
kept small to reduce organizational and budgetary problems, while improving efficiency. This
meant, however, that not all agencies were represented. Some agencies resented being left out but
most were involved at the initial coordinating meeting in December, 1992, or at the national
workshop in June, 1993.
The University Environmental Centers (PSLs) were viewed as important in promoting regional
implementation of data collection and public awareness programs. Relatively, few university staff
participated, however, because many PSL staff involved in marine work were either busy or located
far from Jakarta.
Meetings were usually conducted in Indonesian, with translated comments directed at the advisor,
in deference to my inadequate knowledge of Indonesian. Small discussion groups involving myself
were conducted in English. As I was unable to write in Indonesian, most drafts of the manuscript
were written in English and translated for distribution shortly before the meetings. Time­
consuming translations limited the number of meetings, increased the cost, and frustrated attempts
to find suitable wording. Suggestions made for changes in the Indonesian version had to be
carefully tracked and translated into English so that the two versions could remain similar. It was
clear that this type of material is difficult to translate and that the technical terms used in
Indonesian are tentative.
Overall progress was steady and slow. The process of preparing such documents within LH appears
to be developing and may become more efficient in the future. To the uninitiated, this sequence of
events may seem overly long and complex. This complexity resulted from two requirements.
Firstly, the principal author could not speak adequate Indonesian and initially had little knowledge
of the workings of the relevant agencies in Indonesia. Secondly, the National Strategy had to be
developed through the process of consensus. This process was of paramount importance.
Several National Strategies have been developed in marine areas in Indonesia. Although most of
these are very recent, it is obvious that some strategies have been more successful than others. The
existence of some of these strategies is poorly known, and their ideas have not been adopted and
implemented. I believe that this is not simply due to a lack of funding. Further their success does
not simply depend on whether the technical details and action plan lend themselves to immediate
implementation. Sometimes, recommendations require very little funding, and it is often the
individual agencies themselves, not the coordinating agency, which must develop their own
detailed action plan. What successful strategies always require is commitment. No one will
commit themselves to someone else's strategy. We can only commit ourselves if it becomes our
strategy. That is the process we were pursuing. This strategy had to be developed as much as
possible by the Technical Team so that they would own it. Through their representatives and
5

EMDI Environmental Reports, No. 44
through the process of a National Workshop. agencies would adapt the strategy and call it their
own. Only then would there be the necessary commitment to implement the strategy when funds
become available. The success of a strategy -its implementation -depends largely on this
commitment. Only time will tell if this advisorship has contributed sufficient momentum to this
strategy's development so that it will achieve the required commitment to be successfully
implemented.
6

APPENDICES

ApPENDIX 1
BIODIVERS ITY IN THE COASTAL ZONE

ApPENDIX 1: BIODIVERSITY IN THE COASTAL ZONE
Reg Watson. BSc.(Hons), MSc., PhD.
LEcruRE GIVEN AT INTEGRATED RESOURCE MANAGEMENT COURSE, (DR.IR. ROKHMIN
DAHURI); OcrOBER 15TH, 1992; PuSAT PENEurrAN UNGKUNGAN HIDup [ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH CENTRE}, BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, IPB DARMAGA CAMPUS,
BOGOR.
What is Biodiverslty?
Biodiversity is concerned about the variety or diversity of life. The diversity of life is what enables it to
survive envirorunental change. The study of biodiversity can take many different points of view or focus
such as the following:
Genes
Genes
Varieties
Species
Habitats
Processes
Some workers are most concerned about the variety of genes themselves. Working with plant and animal
genes offers some advantages as tests are available to quantify similarities in genetic content. These
workers believe that if we protect and conserve genes then all high levels such as species will also be
protected (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
Varieties
Other workers believe that we should concentrate at higher levels of organization than mere genes.
Others believe that genes change or mutate too quickly, have too much redundancy, and differ too much
in their importance or expression in an organism to be useful. They believe that we should work with
animal varieties or strains which are different in phenotype or appearance.
Species
Others believe that we can work at the level of species or other taxonomic levels as for the most part
differences in appearance in plants and animals has lead to them being defmed as separate species, etc.
Habitats
In conservation work we often focus on habitats. Habitats such as coral reefs can be described by their
key plants and animals. We know that if we conserve these habitats then this is very importance in
conserving those species living there. If the habitat is large or complex enough we can hope to also
preserve sufficient varieties and genes to allow the communities to survive natural ranges of
envirorunental changes.
Much conservation should concentrate on protecting and supporting habitats for some time to come.
This is more towards the scale of ecosystems, which cannot guarantee protection for all species, and in
particular will ignore variety within species. The advantage of considering habitat is two fold. Firstly
habitat destruction is the major cause of local and hence global extinctions. Secondly it is more realistic
to organize conservation on the basis of habitat, since information is more likely to be available and
reliable at this level. The exception is exploited species. So the plan is concentrate on habitats for now
and on species in the future for measuring, evaluating and conserving biodiversity (Medley and Gaudian,
1990)
Processes
Some workers are interested in the processes that shape and maintain a living community and they
believe that these processes need to be maintained.
Interestingly biodiversity has also been applied to study and conservation of human traditions and life­
styles. Perhaps a diversity of these has ensured man's survival.
11

Appendix 1
Why is Coastal Biodiversity Significant?
Coastal Biodiversity is significant to Indonesia for two main reasons. The first reason is that
biodiversity in coastaVmarine environments is perhaps greater than on land (even considering the
richness of rainforests). The second is that coastal and marine environments are so important to
Indonesia.
It is believed that there are about 10
to 30 million species on earth of
which 1.4 million have so far been
named or characterized. Terrestrial
habitats are known to support more
species, largely because of insects,
however, marine ecosystems have a
greater number of higher taxa, and
hence a greater variation between
species (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
Marine habitats support 28 phyla
compared with 14 in freshwater and
lIon land. In fact the marine realm
hosts 31 of the world's 32 existing
animal phyla, 14 of which are
exclusively marine [WRI/IUCN/­
UNEP, 1992].
FIGURE 1
Distribution of animal phyla by habitat
(from WRII/UCNIUNEP, 1992)
Non-Manne (2.4%) "
Both (64.3%)
Ray (1988) points out that filter feeders, especially zooplankton, create extra levels in aquatic food
chains that do not exist on land. The oceans contain greater diversity in body size, from picoplankton to
whales, than found on land. Maine organisms are highly diverse at the genetic level, with individuals in
many taxa being heterozygous at 5% to 15% of their genetic loci (as compared with the average of 3.6%
for mammals and 4.3% for birds) (Polunin, 1983).
Coral reefs rival tropical rain forests in diversity and may surpass them in productivity. Coral reefs
account for only 600,000 km2 yet support a half a million species (one half of them fish) (Beatley,
1991). Australia's Great Barrier Reef is 2,000 km long and supports 300 corals, 1,500 fishes, more than
4,000 mollusks, 250 bird species as well as turtles, whales and porpoises. Throughout the Indo-West
Pacific coral reefs there are 3,000 species of fish.
Indonesia's marine habitats support a large proportion of its biodiversity resource and this proportion is
expected to increase when these habitats receive as much study as terrestrial areas. For example deep-sea
benthic fauna appears to have extraordinarily high diversity but this area is largely unexplored. When
the oceans have been explored as well as terrestrial habitats have been we may discover even greater
biodiversity. Recently new marine organisms (like methane-feeding mussels) have been discovered.
Newly discovered habitats like hydrothermal ocean vents have yielded at least 16 new families of
invertebrates (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
The importance of the coastal zone to Indonesia should not be underestimated. Indonesia is located
within the largest archipelago in the world (the Malay Archipelago). Indonesia has over 17,000 islands
of which about 6,000 are inhabited (KLH, 1992). About 78% of the nation comprises water and all 27
provinces have some coastal zone. About 75% of cities exceeding a population of 100,000 and over
7,000 villages exist along a coastline stretching 81,000 km. In total, 60% of the population (112
million) lives in the coastal zone (BAPPENAS/CIDA 1988).
Indonesia has been described as a "megadiversity" country. Although it occupies only 1.3% of the
world's land area it possesses up to 17% of the total number of species in the world (KLH, 1992). The
highest diversity of shallow benthic species in the world occurs in the tropical Indo-Pacific, followed by
the tropical Pacific coast of America (Barnes and Hughes, 1982). Within the Indo-Pacific, the highest
diversity is centred in the Indo-Malayan region of which Indonesia is a part.
12

Appendix 1
How Do We Measure Blodlversity?
Traditionally ecologists have calculated indices of diversity which combine the number of species found
in a sample with some measure of the evenness of their abundance. That is with this measure, diversity is
greater with more species but even with the same number of species diversity is greater if all the species
have similar abundance. Some researchers believe that this attempt to reduce the importance of rare
species is wrong, however, it would likely depend on the purpose. Sometimes the use of species is not
appropriate and care must be taken that the taxa used avoid subjectivity or domination by some groups.
Any index, however, is only a single value or estimate, and relects only one community state (limited in
time and space) (Medley and Gaudian, 1990). Scientists are now developing statistical models as a
replacement for these historical measures. Monitoring requires these more complex models so that
subtle changes can be identified before damage occurs.
What Is the Value of Coastal Biodiversity?
Indonesia's extensive marine gene pool is highly valued. Through proper management the benefits of
this resource can be used by Indonesia to develop and maintain conservation practices, to encourage the
development of sustainable life styles and industries, and to reorientate people or industries
disadvantaged by conservation initiatives in the short term.
There are five types of values for non-agricultural systems (McNeely et aI., 1990):
Consumptive Use Value
Productive Use Value
Non-consumptive Use Value
Option Value
Existence Value
Consumptive Use Value
This is the non-commercial and direct resource-reducing use of the resource. This use of coastal
biodiversity may offer security and independence to coastal communities. Even though it may offer only
a base level of subsistence this use often requires management to be sustainable.
Productive Use Value
This is the commercial use of a resource. This use is often unsustainable; this use can include tourism.
Many marine habitats have great recreational and amenity values. This aspect of coastal diversity
promises to support many potentially sustainable industries such as ecotourism which in some areas can
replace current destructive practices.
Non-consumptive Use Value
These are the services performed by natural systems such as the control of erosion, weather, the carbon
cycle, etc.
Option Value
This is the value of maintaining future options for example, wild gene stocks. Marine fauna, particularly
sedentary types, often produce chemicals of great scientific and medical interest which may yield great
commercial benefits. These organisms often communicate with each other using these powerful agents.
In some habitats, such as a coral reef, where there is great competition for living space, these animals
and plants use toxic chemicals to gain and defend territory. Many laboratories are currently testing such
chemicals for their ability to kill or inhibit disease organistns and pests. Less toxic substances are useful
as well, the chemical compounds which corals use to protect themselves from ultraviolet radiation are
being developed into new sunscreens.
Marine organisms already contribute significantly to Indonesia's protein requirements but their
diversity is essential to maintaining and advancing important mariculture industries. Access to diverse
wild gene pools has allowed revolutionary advances in the culture of terrestrial plants and animals,
13

Appendix 1
however, if diverse wild stocks are not maintained in marine habitats then similar advances can not be
achieved in mariculture.
Existence Value
This is the only value that is not anthropocentric. These are the values associated with a species basic
right to exist. These ethical feeling for existence are usually associated with developed countries and
high-profile mammals e.g., whales
Quantifying Benefits of Biodiversity
The cost of a full study to quantify the benefits of coastal biodiversity is prohibitive. Commercial
species can be assessed partially by their market values. Sometimes we can calculate the cost of use
replacement by nearest cheapest alternative, e.g., for firewood from mangroves. Sometimes, the cost of
physical/structural replacement is needed as well, e.g., replace reefs value in protecting shorelines.
Implicit pricing methods are a way of evaluating such benefits such as the pleasure from a location. To
assess these we could use the value of property or number of visitors. Contingency valuation is also
possible, this uses surveys to discover preferences such as compensation for loss. If a resource has to be
appreciated or learned to be appreciated then it has a "transformation value" -these can be difficult to
assess (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
Risk assessment is needed but not always possible. It is hoped that policy decisions protect biodiversity
where quantitative appraisal can not be made.
Coastal Habitats With HIgh Biodiversity
Coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass flats and mudflats are the most diverse and threatened. Many
species often need more than one habitat type for their life-history, e.g., shrimp. The following is
summarized from Medley and Gaudian (1990):
Coral Reefs
Maximum growth of coral of 10 cm/yr makes them vulnerable. Highest coral diversity is in the Indo­
Pacific (about 750 species, 85 hermatypic genera), second is the Red Sea (194 species, 70 genera) and
third is the Caribbean (60 species, 28 genera). Coral Reef productivity (2000-5000 g cm2yr-l Lewis
1977) is much greater than the tropical open ocean (20-50g cm-2yr-1 ). This high production helps
sustain high abundance of fish with high biomass (450-1450 kg ha-1 Philippines). Value: species
diversity (3000+ species of plants and animals), genetic resource; prevents erosion; tourism (fishing,
diving, sightseeing); sustainable food source (fmfish, shellfish, crustaceans, beche-de-mer), baitfish for
tuna fishing; ornamental flsh, shell and coral trade; mining of coral for roads and lime production.
Mangrove Forest
Worldwide 80 species (30 genera, 20+ families) majority along Malaysia, Indonesia and Papua New
Guinea. These do not tolerate hypersalinity -better in areas of high rainfall or estuaries. There are flve
major forest structure types: fringe, basin, riverine, overwash and dwarf. Productivity is up to 14 g
cm -2day-l. Some of this production is exported to support nearshore flsheries. The mangroves
themselves may support up 10 times the standing crop of adjacent areas and with a higher, previously
underrepresented diversity; value not only to mangrove users but to those using coral reefs and seagrass
areas beneflting directly or indirectly from detritus production. Maintains nearshore flsheries which
consist of many species which at some stage of their life need this habitat. Many mangroves are being
removed for shrimp farming. Mangrove forest products and flshing are major revenue and employment
sources. They have high commercial and consumptive values. Timber for construction, pulpwood,
flrewood, charcoal, forage for animals, liquid fuels and sugar from nypa palm, honey/wax production etc.
They protect shore from erosion and trap sediments and extract nutrients reducing eutrophication. They
are important means of transport by maintaining channels.
14

Appendix 1
Seagrass and Soft-bottom Habitats
Seagrass areas only a subset of mud flats. 45 species described globally. "Generally" larger "more well
developed" seagrasses occur in deeper water and thinner bladed or sparse in shallow subtidal or intertidal
areas. Limited by available light/water quality < 30m usually < 20m depth. Do not like regular exposure
at low tide, tolerate wide range of salinity but develop best where there is linle wave action. Few studies
of soft-bottom areas. Bacteria turn indigestible seagrass material into detritus for other animals.
Production estimated at 1 kg cm-2 yr.-1 (macro et aI., 1977) similar to tropical rain forests. Mud and
sand flats may be productive without sea grasses because of algae/diatom films (0.3 g m-2). High
diversity of crustaceans, gastropods, bivalves and polychaetes. They support over-wintering
populations of shore birds. Their roots bind sediment, improve water quality and reduce erosion.
Important for commercial shrimp and fmfish.
What Are the Threats to Coastal B1odiversity?
There are many threats to coastal biodiversity. In Indonesia, as elsewhere in the world, coastal habitat
and biota is under siege from loss of habitat, water and air pollution, overuse and overexploitation of
coastal species, introduction of exotic species, and from the potentially catastrophic effects of global
climate changes including ozone depletion and global warming (Beadey, 1991).
Medley and Gaudian (1990) described three main causes of loss of biodiversity:
Habitat destruction
Exploitation
New species introduction
Habitat Destruction
This is the main loss of biodiversity and the greatest present threat to most species. The activities can
be direct (including mining reefs, removing mangroves and the siltation of seagrass beds) or less direct
(pollution by sediment, nutrients, thermal or salinity changes).
EJ:ploitation
Destruction through tourism (anchorlboat damage, sewage from resorts etc.), destructive fishing
methods (non-specific poisons, dynamite or coral breaking) and over-exploitation (changes in
community structure through over fishing e.g., Peruvian anchovy).
New Species Introduction
Although few stricdy marine introductions (e.g., species of snapper in Hawaii) there have been many
estuarine introduction of species which are sufficiently salinity tolerant to disperse along the coast
(e.g., Tilapia in northern Australia).
Global Effects
Serious long-term threats are poised by changes to global climate by man's activities including ozone
depletion and global warming (Beatley, 1991).
Ozone depletion is caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This will allow radiation to
cause lethal mutations and threatens the entire marine food chain.
Global warming will affect the distribution of suitable habitats causing great loss of biodiversity if
species are unable to migrate. Associated sea-level rises will allow the sea to inundate vast areas of
coastal wetlands and mangroves. Coral growth may not keep pace with sea-level rise. Warmer seas will
increase the severity and frequency of hurricanes and storms, as well as extending the areas affected.
Mankind's impact on natural systems is related to his population size and his lifestyle practices such as
his use of energy. Over 100 years world population has increased from 1 billion to 5.3 billion. There are
predictions for 8.5 billion by 2025 (some believe that we will never reach this figure as the earth will
15

Appendix 1
not sustain this many people). Per capita effects are worse in energy-consuming developed countries and
will worsen with improving life-styles in developing countries.
Coastal countries like Indonesia are growing very fast. Population of coastal areas in U.S. are growing at
three times that of the national average. Of all the environmental systems in Indonesia, the coastal zone
has the highest concentration of human population, planned development activity and investment, and
actual or anticipated pollution and other environmental problems, as well as the greatest density of
naturally productive resource systems (KLH, 1992)
How Do We Limit the Loss of Coastal Biodlverslty?
Education and training programs
Educational and training programs are essential to biodiversity protection as they will have the greatest
impact on human's activities. Cholnges in human lifestyle are necessary particularly, in developed
nations. A philosophy of sustainable use and sustainable development must be accepted (Beatley,
1991). Family planning and population control measures are essential but will only gain acceptance
through education. Many taxonomists and parataxonomists will be needed to complete national surveys.
Gathering of coastal biodiversity data and use it in planning processes
There must be a national coordinated strategy to collect data on habitats and species. This would involve
government departments and trained taxonomists but it is likely that it would also involve universities,
NGOs and parataxonomists. Much of this work should be done by a network of regional centres which
must be coordinated nationally and internationally. There must be a commitment to long-term
monitoring so that long and short term effect can be studied.
We must assimilate existing data on habitat/area importance. We must value areas currently unprotected
as well as those that are (Medley and Gaudian, 1990). More effort should be placed on quantifying
biodiversity. This would likely mean that value would increase with scarcity. We must know how much
of a habitat is left (regionally and globally) and there must be a measure of relative habitat quality. We
must consider the temporary or migration use of habitat.
There must be a systematic approach to coastal planning looking at cumulative effects of incremental
environmental degradation of coastal ecosystems (Beatley, 1991). Environmenta l Impact Analysis
(EIA) and planning at all levels should consider specific information on local habitats and the status of
global habitats at the same time (Medley and Gaudian, 1990). EIA should include assessments of sites,
by marine biologists, on impacts on biodiversity.
There should be several valuation schemes. For assessing projects Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) is not
usually possible as it requires accurate assessment of welfare changes. A better alternative might be Safe
Minimum Standard (SMS) which supports that any preservation is good and estimates the opportunity
cost of satisfying the MSS and developers must decide if this is acceptable. This approach still uses lots
of data but puts the burden of proof on the developer.
Often it is not good commercial practice to destroy biodiversity (e.g., in tourism projects) and it
happens by ignorance. Considerations of risk in calculations will always favour conserving wildlife.
Low cost appraisals favour the project. Decision makers must have data in meaningful way. Degrees of
impact should not be ignored. Indices must be developed which represent quantitatively environmental
and fmancial variables.
Choosing and maintaining protected areas carefully
Protected areas must be chosen carefully. There should be consideration for larger ecological context for
example, protection of coral reef communities may require restrictions to deforestation in upland areas.
Protected areas must be as large as possible and include contiguous blocks of coastal habitat to allow for
the gradual migration of species/communities with climate and sea level changes (Beatley, 1991).
If an area of habitat is destroyed then funds should be raised to protect an equivalent area elsewhere. It the
area is not destroyed then damage must be minimized and recovery helped. Impacts should be minimized
in duration as well as in space. Spatial heterogeneity must be maintained (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
16

Appendix 1
Coastal and marine areas must be better represented in park systems and given better protection.
Development of indigenous management capacity with some degree of external management and
control.
There is a need to incorporate sustainable economic use of coastal and marine protected areas including
eco-tourism.
Restoration and Mitigation
Re-establishment of habitats and captive breeding programs have had some success and are critical for
some species but conservation and protection is strongly preferred.
Global Action
One country's policy may not be enough to stop a "tragedy of the commons". International and
multinational agreements area necessary. These must be funded and protective measures implemented.
Intercountry peer-pressure may be necessary for some national policies such as the CITES agreement to
be implemented and enforced.
What is Being Done in Indonesia to Conserve Coastal Biodiversity?
How could the importance of marine biodiversity have been overlooked until recently? If fact marine
conservation in general has only become an issue of global concern within the last 20 years
(WRIJIUCNIUNEP, 1992). There are three main reasons. Firstly, people are terrestrial creatures and do
not observe damage to the marine environment as they would on the land. Secondly, there is no tradition
of managing marine areas for conservation unlike the well-established traditions of terrestrial
conservation. Thirdly, most seas and oceans lie outside the jurisdiction of states, or their territorial
waters. The Oceans are considered a common resource subject to competitive exploitation. Only
comparatively recently have international conventions and agreements began to impose some legal
control over earth's vast ocean areas.
The government of Indonesia recognizes the importance of marine conservation. Plans exist to
establish 10 million ha of marine conservation areas, distributed over 85 reserves throughout the
country for the 5th Five Year Development Planning (Repelita V) of 1988-1993 , in order to preserve
marine genetic diversity. It is planned to establ1sh 30 million ha of marine conservation areas by the
year 2000 (Djohani, 1992).
In recognition of the importance of marine biodiversity, and in response to these threats, KLH requested
that a marine biodiversity management component be included in Phase 3 of the Environmental
Management Development in Indonesia Project (EMDI). This project is jointly implemented by the
Ministry of State for Population and Environment (KLH) of the Government of Indonesia and Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada. EMDI receives its funding from the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA).
The aim of the marine biodiversity component is to assist KLH to coordinate work on a marine
biodiversity inventory and database. Several biodiversity projects are currently planned for Indonesia,
however, most concentrate on terrestrial habitats. The challenge will be to facilitate coordination and
cooperation between these projects while also ensuring that future biodiversity project planning
includes study of marine habitats. In this way the biodiversity considerations can be incorporated in the
AMDAL and coastal planning processes.
Discussion will be initiated by KLH integrating other relevant government departments, universities and
NGOs so that ongoing and proposed projects can be coordinated. It is hoped that a workshop of
interested parties can be convened before next year. In this way we hope that a consensus can be reached
about plans to include coastal biodiversity data in proposed national inventories and databases. It is
hoped that these proposed databases will be available to, and be used by, planners considering coastal
development proposals. Educational programmes may be initiated to raise public awareness of
biodiversity and how lifestyle choices can influence the future of conservation in Indonesia.
17

Appendix 1
How Do We Fund Coastal Biodiversity Conservation?
NaJionai and local level (McNeely)
Charge entry fees for parks (either individuals or tourist operators)
Charge for ecological services (such as beach protection by reef)
Collect special taxes (such as on trade of wildlife products)
Build funding linkages with development projects (capture funds from development for
conservation)
Return profits from exploitation of biological resources (national rights to share of profits
from products of marine biodiversity)
Build conditionality into concession agreements (require support for conservation programs)
Seek support from the private sector
Establish foundations for conservation (for voluntary donations)
Collect interest from investments made by a protected area (use adjacent land to raise money)
International level
Use international conventions to provide fmancial support
Seek direct support from international conservation organizations
"swap debt for nature" (debt written off for local investment in conservation)
Use restricted currency holdings (money that international companies are required to
spend in Indonesia)
Future work?
There needs to be more understanding of coastal species and habitats including the minimum
sustainable size and configuration. necessary size of transition and buffer zones. needs for
migration and movement of corridors. tluesholds and carrying capacities for water pollution
etc. There must be more policy development into the integration of biodiversity
considerations into land use/coastal development and on the promotion of more sustainable
lifestyles (Beatley. 1991).
Indonesia is blessed with abundant living resources. Managed use of these resources will allow
Indonesia to develop without eroding its rich heritage. Through careful plarming and generous
cooperation. Indonesia can assure that" the benefits from its natural resources improve the
quality of life of all Indonesians. now and in the future.
18

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Beatley, T. 1991. Protecting Biodiversity in Coastal Environments: Introduction and
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Djohani, R. H. 1992. WWF Marine Conservation Development Programme and Projects in
Indonesia, in Particular in PuIau Seribu Marine National Park. A discussion paper for the
National Seminar of Coral Reef Management and Conservation Strategy, August 7-8,
Jakarta.
KLH. 1992. Indonesian CounJry Study on Biological Diversity, ed. S. Adisoemarto. Jakarta.
Lewis, J.B. 1977. Processes of Organic Production on Coral Reefs. Biological Review 52:
305-347.
McNeely, J.A. 1989. How to pay for conserving biological diversity. Ambio
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Switzerland: mCN.
McRoy, C.P., et al. 1977. Production Ecology and Physiology in Seagrass. In: Seagrass
ecosystems, ed. McRoy C.P. and Helfferich C., 53-89. New York: Dekker.
Medley, P.A.H, and G. Gaudian. 1990. Marine Biological Diversity. A Report to the Overseas
Development Administration. Marine Resources Assessment Group. London.
Polunin. N.V.C. 1983. Marine 'genetic resources' and the Potential Role of Protected Areas in
Conserving them. Environmental Conservation 10(1): 31-41.
Ray, G.C. 1988. Ecological diversity in coastal zones and oceans. In Biodiversity , ed. E.O.
Wilson, 36-40. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
World Resources Institute (WRI), The World Conservation Union (lUCN), and United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for
Action to Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably.
19

ApPENDIX 2
NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR MARINE
BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Biodiversity or biological diversity is, in simple terms, the variety of plants and animals found in a
specified area. In recent times mankind has become aware that its activities have destroyed many types
of life on earth. Mankind has always relied on the variety of life on earth to provide basic needs such as
food, clothing and medicines. A wide variety of life has enabled humans to develop and farm productive
and disease-resistant plants and animals. Mankind has come to depend on medicines and drugs extracted
from a wide range plants and animals.
Our needs will no longer be met if our activities continue to destroy nature's habitats or if our use of
nature is not sustainable. As increasing populations make our needs more acute, it is imperative that we
no longer continue to destroy the environment at increasing rates. To do so will lead to the destruction
of our environment, our cultures and ultimately our own existence.
Indonesia is a megadiversity nation and although it occupies only 1.3% of the world's land area, it
possesses up to 17% of the total number of species in the world. Indonesia's dependence on its rich
marine natural resources is great. Already over 60% of its population lives in the coastal zone and this
percentage is increasing. Indonesia's coastal resources already support 112 million people. Much of the
extensive marine biodiversity remains unexplored and untapped - a vital future resource.
There is a critical need for Indonesia to manage its natural resources in an ecologically sustainable way.
Destruction of the environment increases the great risk of overexploitation and reduces options for
future development. The overexploitation of marine species is not in Indonesia's long-term interests.
Difficult decisions must be made about what levels of exploitation some populations of marine
organisms can sustain. The inherent social problems in enforcing harvest restrictions must be addressed.
Decisions must be supported by communities and agencies involved.
Current coastal developments must be managed so that they do not destroy important natural habitats,
and in so doing reduce Indonesia's future development potential. Much of Indonesia's mangrove forests
have already been cleared -they may be lost forever. With them is lost the rich and productive diversity
of life, which in addition to supplying human needs, prevents coastal erosion. protects water supplies.
and cleans the air.
Likewise. destruction of the coral reefs through blasting has destroyed this rich system for many years to
come and subjected coastal villages to extensive erosion and storm damage. Seagrass meadows. which
provide nursery habitat for both subsistence and commercial fisheries. are being dredged. filled or silted
over. Garbage. pollutants and sewage are being poured into harbours. destroying all marine life. Loss of
marine habitats means the loss of potential for fisheries. tourism and mariculture. It means the loss of
animal and plant species and variety (biodiversity). and with it. the valuable genetic pool for future
mariculture and biotechnology developments.
In its 5th Five Year Development Planning (Repelita V) of 1988-1993, the government of Indonesia
recognizes the importance of marine conservation and the need to preserve marine genetic diversity.
Plans exist to establish 10 million hectares of marine conservation areas. distributed over 85 reserves
throughout the country. Further. it is planned to establish 30 million hectares of marine conservation
areas by the year 2000. The national strategy for marine biodiversity management provides an approach
for reducing the damage and for making better use of this valuable resource.
The general strategy to manage marine biodiversity is:
Save It
(1) Achieve community awareness (Sosialisai Humum) of the importance of marine biodiversity
management, and secure the support and participation of communities in management activities.
(2) Establish and implement management plans for existing marine protected areas.
(3) Enforce regulations controlling all existing and future marine protected areas.
23

Executive Summary
(4) Establish appropriate management for all marine environments including mangrove forests,
seagrass meadows and coral reefs, with a time table for achieving the promised increases in the
number and extent of marine conservation areas (30 million hectares before the year 2000).
(5) Develop means of assessing the economic and social value of marine biodiversity, and develop
the policy means to use these values in the planning and AMDAL processes involved in the
management of marine development.
(6) Include marine biodiversity in education curricula.
Study It
(7) Develop, update and maintain geographically-based databases of marine resources and
biodiversity which can be used for resource management and planning, and for the utilization of
. material for biotechnology.
(8) Actively promote systematic surveys of the nation's marine resources and support the
institutional strengthening necessary for the timely training of marine taxonomists and
parataxonomists.
(9) Study and document the effects and mitigation of man's activities such as pollution on marine
biodiversity.
(10) Facilitate the necessary institutional strengthening required for marine biodiversity management
such as improving the capacities of libraries and reference collections to provide information on
marine biodiversity.
Use It
(11) Investigate and develop socio-economic solutions to the misuse of marine biodiversity such as
the blasting of coral reefs and promote ecologically sustainable use of marine genetic materials
and products as a means of offering alternatives to destructive practices of marine harvest now
threatening these resources.
This strategy is supported by a detailed policy statement and action plan in the accompanying sections.
Technical information, including a glossary of terms, is included in the Technical Appendix.
24

1 . INTRODUCTION
The concept of biodiversity is complex and includes considerations of genes, varietIes, species,
habitats, landscapes, processes, and cultures. As such, biodiversity represents the variety of form and
structure of life itself. This variety has supported mankind and our activities in the past and holds
enormous promise for allowing mankind to continue to develop in the future.
For the world, and for archipelagic countries like Indonesia in particular, the diversity of life in marine
habitats (which includes from the deep oceans to the high-tide height, the latter sometimes described as
'coastal') is of great importance. Indonesia is fortunate to have extensive coastlines with a wide variety
of physical land forms. Indonesia is also one of the world's centers of biodiversity. The global
significance of the biodiversity of Indonesia's rainforests is widely accepted, but unfortunately, less is
known or discussed about Indonesia's marine biodiversity and its value.
Increasing pressure on the marine resources of Indonesia has caused large tracts of marine habitat to be
destroyed or severely degraded. With habitat loss, there is an accompanying loss of biodiversity. Future
sustainable industries are being threatened. Those that destroy marine biodiversity, whether through
greed, environmental ignorance, or the desperation of poverty, threaten the future of all Indonesians.
Indonesia has a commitmen t to create and manage an extensive system of marine conservation areas.
This commitment can only be fulfilled while suitable areas are still available. The first priority is to save
biodiversity through the creation of conservation areas. Although this is an essential first step, this
does not in itself guarantee the conservation of biodiversity. These conservation areas, and their flora
and fauna, must be seen as valuable by government and local communities if their futures are to be secure.
To recognize the value of marine biodiversity we must identify and study it. We must manage these
conservation areas and establish patterns of sustainable resource use. First, we must gather the
knowledge. Surveys must determine where habitats are distributed within conservation areas and provide
inventories of their flora and fauna. This process will require the cooperation of government,
universities, NGOs and local communities. Institutional strengthening will be necessary to train the
required marine taxonomists and parataxonomists, and to create and maintain reference collections. One
possibility is the creation of regional centers where inventories can be organized, parataxonomists
tramed, material for biotechnology collected, and community education programs designed and run.
These centers could play an active role m developing and promoting alternatives to the destructive
practices of marine harvest now threatening marine resources. This approach can be loosely modeled on
the work done by InBio m Costa Rica.
Databases of marine habitats, flora and fauna can be accumulated at regional centers and used in local
planning procedures. This information could also be available to a national center, where it would form
part of the environmental considerations in the planning and AMDAL processes. This may involve
further policy development and could be facilitated by the appropriate use of geographical information
system technology.
2 • GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
2.1 GOALS
Save It
Conserve biodiversity for future generations through the use of marine protected areas, supported by
effective enforcement, an informed public, and active community involvement.
Study It
Study must determine and document the extent and description of biodiversity resources, its values and
uses, the damage caused by human activities, and the means to mitigate this damage.
Use It Sustalnably
Promote ecologically sustainable and equitable use of biodiversity.
25

Appendix 2
2 • 2 OBJECTIVES
Save It
(1) Achieve community awareness (Sosialisai Humum) of the importance of marine biodiversity
management. and secure the support and participation of communities in management activities.
(2) Establish and implement management plans for existing marine protected areas.
(3) Enforce regulations controlling all existing and future marine protected areas.
(4) Establish appropriate management for all marine environments including mangrove forests,
seagrass meadows and coral reefs, with a time table for achieving the promised increases in the
number and extent of marine conservation areas (30 million hectares before the year 2000)
(5) Develop means of assessing the economic and social value of marine biodiversity, and develop
the policy means to use these values in the planning and AMDAL processes involved in the
management of marine development.
(6) Include marine biodiversity in education curricula.
Study It
(7) Develop, update and maintain geographically-based databases of marine resources and
biodiversity which can be used for resource management and planning, and for the utilization of
material for biotechnology.
(8) Actively promote systematic surveys of the nation's marine resources and support the
institutional strengthening necessary for the timely training of marine taxonomists and
parataxonomists.
(9) Study and document the effects and mitigation of human activities such as pollution on marine
biodiversity.
(10) Facilitate the necessary institutional strengthening required for marine biodiversity managem�nt
such as improving the capacities of libraries and reference collections to provide information on
marine biodiversity.
Use It
(11) Investigate and develop socio-economic solutions to the misuse of marine biodiversity such as
the blasting of coral reefs and promote ecologically sustainable use of marine genetic materials
and products as a means of offering alternatives to destructive practices of marine harvest now
threatening these resources.
3. POLICY
In general, there must be support for programs involved with population control and ecologically
sustainable economic development as large populations and poverty are the major causes of loss of
biodiversity and are likely to remain so in the future. Though the importance of these programs on the
conservation and management of biodiversity cannot be overstated, they are beyond the scope of this
document.
3.1 SAVEIT
If we wait until a national survey has been completed in order to select future marine conservation areas
then many resources will be lost. The first priority should be to save the resource so that it can be
investigated and used in the future. Public awareness programs will be essential to secure public support
for conservation plans. Where possible, areas must be chosen and maintained to allow for the
maintenance of ecosystem integrity. Areas with the highest biodiversity will likely be sites which
contain a variety of ecosystem types.
26

Appendix 2
3.1.1 COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND PARTIOPATION
a. Background
For policies developed nationally to be accepted at the community level there must be close
coordination and cooperation between various government departments, universities and
regional NGOs. It is suggested that regional centers be established at which these agencies would
cooperate in the development of training, complete regional surveys: marine
habitats/flora/fauna, socio-economic and cultural factors, and maintain regional museum
collections and biodiversity databases, and develop and implement regional community
awareness programs.
We must understand what is meant by public awareness and public participation. Public awareness
is the public's understanding of, and "interest in, the relevant issues. Wise programs to increase
public awareness will give people a sense of involvement and responsibility. This should lead to
public participation: the involvement of the public through contributing ideas, time, money; and
their commitment to help plan, implement, and monitor programs to ensure their success.
b. Policy
(1) Optimize and increase the effectiveness of cooperation and coordination between the central
and regional development programs for public awareness and participation involving
government institutions, universities and regional NGOs.
(2) Disseminate information on marine biodiversity management and related issues to increase
knowledge and awareness of the people on marine issues.
(3) Improve the quality and quantity of extension workers working on developing public
awareness and participation programs in marine biodiversity management
(4) Involve the public in planning, implementing and monitoring programs in marine
biodiversity.
(5) Acknowledge and support the rights and responsibilities of people and communities with
regard to marine resources.
(6) Prepare guidelines for the implementation of eXlstmg laws and regulations supporting
public awareness and participation programs in marine biodiversity management.
(7) Raise funds to support public awareness and participation programs in marine biodiversity
management -whether from the community, government, private sector or foreign donors.
(8) Create opportunities of alternatives for those individuals and communities currently using
methods of fishing which degrade the marine environment and biodiversity.
(9) Encourage and recognize local institutions and agencies which support marine conservation.
3.1.2 MANAGEMENT OF EXISTING MARINE CONSERVATION AREAs
a. Background
Save existing marine conservation areas through a comprehensive program of management,
public involvement, resource evaluation, and ecologically sustainable use. Once areas have been
selected and afforded some degree of management control then surveys can determine what
resources exist, and how, if possible, these can be sustainably exploited. This will increase the
value of the area so that it can provide for its own maintenance and survive future challenges to its
existence.
27

Appendix 2
b. Policy
Marine biodiversity policy with regard to the management of marine conservation areas is:
(1) Develop and implement management plans for conservation areas.
(2) Encourage community involvement in the management of marine conservation areas (see
3.1.1).
(3) Complete inventories for existing marine conservation areas.
(4) Develop and maintain databases on the distribution and threats to marine habitats, flora and
fauna (see 3.2.1).
(5) Facilitate controlled exploitation of conservation area's resources including the supply of
biological material for biotechnology (see 3.3.1).
3.1.3 PRIORITY MARINE FLORA AND FAUNA
a. Background
Priorities should be based on the status of wild stocks, whether endangered, vulnerable, rare or
care demanding (Fitter and Fitter 1987). There are few studies of the popUlation dynamics of
Indonesian species, and of these most are based on a comparatively brief study. Sometimes
sampling techniques used did not suit the species in the study. Studies appropriate to the current
conditions of the habitat and the kind of threats posed to it should be initiated. Some studies will
be difficult to implement as many marine fauna species are migratory. Future economic and
conservation values have to be studied as they would assist in setting priorities.
Management strategies should obviously depend upon the category into which a taxon falls. If
numbers are large, distribution is broad and continuous, and no threats either to the taxon or its
habitat are detectable, then it is pointless to expend funds and effort on management. The usual
fIrst response seems to be 'monitor', but just what is meant by 'monitoring' is seldom made clear.
At the very least, there must be an effort to document a change in either the abundance of a taxon
or the extent of habitat suitable for it (Fitter and Fitter, 1987).
b. Policy
(1) Develop implementation guidelines for the Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1978 concerning
the ratification of CITES.
(2) Develop management plans for priority flora and fauna.
3.1.4. ENFORCEMENT OF REGULATIONS PROTECIlNG MARINE CONSERVATION AREAs
a. Background
Effective enforcement of regulations protecting marine conservation areas is essential to save
these areas from misuse and overexploitation. Enforcement must be combined with public
awareness programs to ensure the best protection of marine biodiversity.
b. Policy
Marine biodiversity policy with regard to the enforcement of regulations protecting marine
conservation areas is:
(1) Improved enforcement of existing environmental regulations through increases in staff
numbers, training and motivation for agencies involved, greater coordination and
cooperation between enforcement agencies. The latter will include resolving any
outstanding jurisdictional disputes.
28

Appendix 2
3.1.5 CREATION OF NEW MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS
a. Background
The government of Indonesia recognizes the importance of marine conservation. Plans exist to
establish 10 million ha of marine conservation areas, distributed over 85 reserves throughout the
country for the 5th Five Year Development Planning (Repelita V) of 1988-1993, in order to
preserve marine genetic diversity. It is planned to establish 30 million ha of marine conservation
areas by the year 2000 (Djohani, 1992).
For the purposes of marine biodiversity management the designation and determination of
priority areas for marine conservation should be based on the value of biodiversity, the degree of
threat posed by human activities or natural disasters, and on assessments of the future ecological
and economic values of areas under consideration.
If these targets are to be met, selection of new sites must proceed quickly, and with little
preliminary survey work. If large areas of marine conservation areas are to be created and managed
then work must proceed before existing and planned development greatly reduces the choice of
potential sites.
There is a need to support the managers of marine parks, to ensure that they have the specialized
training required, that they can use methods applicable to marine rather than terrestrial
environments, and that options such as multi-use parks are available for the marine sector.
b. Policy
(1) Integrate the needs of related agencies and local commumlles in the designation,
determination and the management of marine conservation areas.
3.1.6 MANAGEMENr OF IMPACI"S ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY
a. Background
Development can pose severe threats to marine biodiversity. These must be controlled and
mitigated. Development must be carefully planned and coordinated to minimize its impact on the
marine biodiversity.
b. Policy
(1) Include the impact of development and industries in marine and terrestrial habitats on marine
biodiversity in the planning and AMDAL processes -that is, assign some importance to the
effects of development on the distribution. functions and values of habitats, flora and fauna.
(2) Use biodiversity considerations in the future setting of environmental standards.
(3) Create buffer zones to minimize the likelihood of damage to protected areas by controlling
industries in the area.
(4) Extend practices of local control of marine resources, and programs of compensation for
damage to biodiversity by industry or individuals.
(5) Develop alternatives for individuals forced by poverty and circumstances to use destructive
marine harvest practices.
(6) Support and extend the use of sustainable, traditional resource-use practices.
3.1.7 MARINE TRAINING AND EDUCATION
a. Background
The success of marine biodiversity management will depend on the user's participation and the
29

Appendix 2
ease with which management can use information from databases. To ensure a wide-spectrum of
participation existing marine education and training programs, both formal and informal, should
be improved.
b. Policy
(1) Include concepts of marine biodiversity in the national education curriculum from primary to
tertiary levels.
(2) Disperse informal information on marine biodiversity through nature lover clubs, diving
clubs, and excursions to museums and oceanariums.
3.2 STUDY IT
3.2.1 MARINE BrODIVERSITY DAT ABASES
a. Background
Marine databases have already been set up by several sectoral agencies which are also responsible
for research and survey activities, such as UPI, BAKOSURT ANAL. DISHIDROS, BPIT, RIMF and
certain universities. These are, however, not sufficient thus far to constitute a national inventory
for marine biodiversity purposes. The different purposes and management strategies of each
agency, and their lack of coordination, can result in redundancies in the type of information
collected. Different data formats can frustrate attempts to exchange information. This needs to be
coordinated and managed.
Coordinating common data formats and facilitating the sharing of data is a difficult task for even
two relatively similar databases. To extend this work to a multitude of small databases scattered
over countless personal computers across agencies which do not traditionally share data is an
enormous undertaking. It may require that copies of summarized data are forwarded to some central
database which shares its information (through a network or frequent updates) with contributors
and other users. What will be critical is the collection and computer storage of common, mutually
agreed-upon types of data, and the cooperation of the agencies involved.
Data Requirements
The main function of a national marine biodiversity database would be to allow management of
this resource. Management in this context means ecologically sustainable use. For this to be
possible knowledge is required about: where the resource is, how much there is or its quality, and
how much can safely be taken.
Inventories will establish where habitats are located, and what species are found there. If the
survey is comprehensive enough then estimates of numbers or of habitat quality can be obtained.
This is necessary for management purposes. To value a part of a resource, such as a mangrove
forest, requires knowledge about: how much similar habitat exists in the area, and what is the
quality of this habitat at the site in question, and what is its relationship to the economic value of
the area, such as fisheries. How much of the resource it represents, and whether the resource is
scarce or abundant, must be known. In addition, the present and projected use patterns must also
be known.
Sustainable resource use requires knowledge about the future status of the resource. That is, it must
be known whether the situation is likely to change in the future, and whether there are any
identifiable threats to the resource. Information about the population dynamics of the resource is
important, for example, to predict how a species might respond to exploitation or habitat
degradation. This will help assess how cautious one must be to approach assumptions about its
future availability.
The Wetland database of the Asian Wetland Bureau (AWE) has many of the necessary elements of
a biodiversity database, including the ability to have species observations grouped by habitat
observations with corresponding data on land use and impacts. It allows for complete site
descriptions, including value assessment -essential to planners. A WB is currently working on
30

Appendix 2
the incorporation of geo-referenced data to its Wetland database.
The Nature Cortservancy ([NC) (1992) provided many of the hierarchical systems necessary for a
biodiversity database organized by habitat type. If their systems were adapted by many Pacific
nations, then perhaps regional compatibility might be achieved.
System Requirements
To be useful for planning purposes, the database must have a geographical basis so that the sites
and species can be located on maps. The basic design, therefore, is that of a geographical
information system (OIS). There are many such systems on the market.
In addition to standard database management functiorts the option chosen must have the ability to
digitize maps, analyze remotely sensed-images (e.g., satellite data), do traditional statistical and
geographical analysis, and produces maps as required. It must be able to handle both vector and
raster data. It will allow derivative mapping and process modeling. Ideally it will also be
inexpertsive and not require expertsive hardware to function. Whatever system is chosen, it must
be compatible to those already used by the end users and must be well supported by the
manufacturer.
Data Uses
Like many databases, a large comprehertsive marine biodiversity database would have many
potential users. These include planners, environmentalists, and the private sector.
Planners might wish to know whether an area of mangrove located on the site of a proposed
airport development is significant enough to reject or alter the proposal. They may wish to know
which of several proposed sites is the poorest habitat. Some sites may have records of endangered
species. Possibly the developer will exchange another site which has better quality habitat. In
this way, the most significant sites can be obtained and cortserved.
Environmental groups may wish to know of the status of endangered species at a national,
regional or provincial level. They may wish to produce maps of habitat and species distributions
to help them develop proposals.
Private sector users involved with the tourist industry would likely want to know where habitats
or species are located. They might want to know the location of coral reefs within 50 km of a
proposed resort site. They may then wish to see them displayed on a map and obtain lists of the
flora and fauna at each site. Companies may wish to know where developments would have the
mirtimum impact on existing marine habitats.
Database Structure and Organization
The structure and organization of a database should be primarily dictated by its use and users.
Ideally the database will be organized so that it is useful and easy to use by the intended user or
users. Habitats should be represented by a hierarchical coded structure devised for both land use
and threats.
b. Policy
(1) Design and implement a national marine biodiversity database, making the information it
contains accessible and understandable to a wide range of users, especially planners and
policy makers.
(2) Create regional marine biodiversity databases which can act as the coordination point for
information gathered in regions, and which is shared in a national facility. Eventually, this
could form a computer network which could share data internationally.
31

Appendix 2
3.2.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEM INvENToRIES
a. Background
To manage a resource wisely, its extent, ecology, utility, and capacity to sustain itself must fust
be known. It is not possible to say that a particular habitat or organism is rare unless its
distribution and abundance is known. even if this knowledge is limited in its detail. It may be, for
example, that seagrass meadows with their associated flora and fauna are common in some areas
of Indonesia but extremely rare in others. This will not be known unless wide areas are surveyed.
Inventories are only possible through systematic surveys which require trained workers including
taxonomists. Even surveys of existing marine conservation areas will require more marine
taxonomists. To enhance their productivity, these workers should be given better support and
encouragement. This includes better training and facilities, career incentives, and more
assistance. Parataxonomists can assist in the collection and preliminary identification of
specimens. They can be trained and assigned to regional centers to collect and forward partially
identified specimens in a similar way to that already working in Costa Rica. In Costa Rica
parataxonomists are recruited from communities where the surveys are taking place and perform a
valuable liaison and community awareness role. NGOs, and nature lover and diving clubs can also
collect specimens and through interesting programs attract more students to enter the field of
taxonomy. Networked specimen databases can be developed to aid the handling, cataloguing and
tracing of specimens. Indonesian taxonomic journals should be better supported so that more
marine species can be described. A Museum of Natural History must be created with a special
Marine section. This facility could house and display marine specimens to the public, allow the
efficient exchange of specimens within Indonesia and overseas, and offer training and experience
to students. Many valuable specimens collected in Indonesia can be returned from overseas when
a suitable. internationally recognized facility is available.
Surveys should initially attempt to describe current marine protected areas. Following this or
concurrently. new sites should be examined, especially for their potential as new protected areas;
however. it must be stressed that the declaration of new protected marine areas cannot wait until
surveys are completed fust. A program should be developed to identify priority sites for survey
and protection based on two groups of criteria: ecological value and viability for protection. This
preliminary process for setting survey priorities was successfully used by A WB to plan surveys of
Sumatran wetland areas. Other sites that should be examined as a priority are those where flora and
fauna are potentially threatened. such as in shipping channels where the risk of oil spills is great.
The biodiversity resource of Indonesia can only be used if it is known. If the quality of the
biodiversity in habitats cannot be documented then sites cannot be compared. and development
decisions cannot consider biodiversity resources. For example. it may be possible to identify all
seagrass meadows in one area but it may not be practical to conserve or manage all these sites. If
the relative quality of these sites with regard to their biodiversity resources is known. then if
some sites must be destroyed or degraded through development, then these could be the poorer
sites. When commercial development decisions must be made which include the actual or
potential loss of marine habitat, then decision-makers must have some idea of the value of
specific sites. In this way they can decide if the project should proceed at all, or whether it can
proceed at another. less valuable site.
We must recognize that data on marine biodiversity will be difficult and expensive to obtain. It
will be some time before any data is collected on some areas. Managers must resolve to proceed
with the development of management plans now -even though data is limited and uncertain.
Activities should be focussed on the inventory of the diversity of genetic resources. varieties,
species, habitats and ecological processes. LIPI, as the agency responsible for scientific
research. should develop a simple system for data collection which will provide the required
information for managers and policy makers. The development of the Marine Data Center (Pusat
Data Kelautan) of P30 LIPI should be upgraded and supported with equipment, staff and training.
This center could become the proposed National Marine Biodiversity Inventory Center (NMBIC)
or National Marine Biodiversity Data and Information Center.
Other activities already undertaken by BAKOS URT ANAL. the Marine Fishery Research Institute.
32

Appendix 2
and other institutions should be coordinated by the NMBIC. particularly for data compilation and
management necessary for policy development. This coordination would avoid sectoral overlap
in the activities conducted by related institutions. LH should be the coordinator for the National
Strategy on Marine Biodiversity Management as well as activities of the NMBIC. particularly
those regarding policy development and integrated management plans.
Spatial planning should play an increasing role in the utilization and wise management of all
marine resources (in line with the Spatial Use Management Act). This will require information
from surveys of habitats and species distributions. The type of data collected should include
ecological and biological information (on coral reefs. benthic communities. mangrove forests
and seagrass meadows). socio-economic information on fishing activities (types. sites. capital
and gear. target and incidental species). socio-economic information on coastal communities
(settlements. livelihoods. populations. productivity). and on industrial activities. Data must also
be collected on the past, present and future impacts of these activities on marine habitats and
biota; threats must be documented.
b. Policy
(1) Inventory marine ecosystems and their associated biodiversity.
(2) Research marine biodiversity. particularly the diversity of genetic resources. varieties.
species. habitats and ecological processes.
(3) Focus research activities and inventories initially on eXlstIng conservation areas.
potential conservation areas. priority habitats. areas and species. Undertake study of areas
by priority based on biodiversity values. threats posed by human activity and future
ecological and economic values. and provide information gathered to a national and
regional level data centers for marine biodiversity.
(4) Conduct socio-economic research on current and potential use of marine flora and fauna
(commercial. traditional and subsistence). and on other aspects of coastal communities
which have associated patterns of destructive or unsustainable use of marine resources.
(5) Initiate large-scale. coarse surveys of known high biodiversity areas outside of
conservation areas using rapid assessment teclmiques for the purposes of aiding future
selection of managed conservation areas.
(6) Research the ex-situ conservation of rare marine species.
(7) Develop policy and conduct research on the use of marine biodiversity data (base-line and
threats) for economic and environmental plarming (such as AMDAL and project
evaluation).
(8) Encourage. support and coordinate marine research and survey activities currently
performed by various institutions.
(9) Standardize methods and data formats to allow for the exchange of marine biodiversity
information and for the opportunity to prepare a national inventory of marine
biodiversity.
(10) Research the impacts of economic development on the sustainable management of marine
biodiversity (i.e .• chemical industrial pollution. eutrophication. oil spills. siltation and
the exploitation of deep sea resources).
(11) Develop a database for the documentation and tracing of museum specimens.
3.2.3 DocuMENT AND MmGATE HUMAN EFFEcrs ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY
a. Background
Human activities are the greatest threats to marine biodiversity. Under current legislation the
successful prosecution for pollution requires that there is evidence that the material being released
33

Appendix 2
harms the marine biota. Such documentation from other countries, which do not have similar
species and environments to Indonesia, may not be admissible. Therefore it is essential that
Indonesia conduct studies on the effects of human activities such as pollution on the marine
environment and investigate ways to mitigate these effects.
b. Policy
(1) Document the effects of human activities such as pollution on the marine environments of
Indonesia.
(2) Develop methods to mitigate or rehabilitate marine habitats.
3. 2.4 TAXONOMIC REFERENCE COlLECTIONS
a. Background
A network of regional centers should collect marine specimens which should be added to existing
collections. A database system should be developed to help maintain collections, trace
specimens and provide users (scientists, managers and private industry) with standard
information on specimens. This specimen data should be used to generate database information
on the distribution of species.
The rate at which the marine biota of Indonesia can be surveyed and identified will depend largely
on human resources. Work in taxonomic research must be actively encouraged.
b. Policy
(1) Develop a database for the documentation and tracing of museum specimens.
(2) Link this proposed specimen database with any future marine biodiversity database.
(3) Create a network of regional centers for the collection of marine specimens which would
forward material to existing marine taxonomic centers for identification and housing.
(4) Initiate and expand existing education and training programs which provide scientific and
management skills relevant to marine biodiversity, particularly marine taxonomy, genetics
and systematics.
3.2.5 INS1TlUI10NAL STRENGTIlENING
a. Background
The BAPPENAS-CIDA document (1988) presented a comprehensive plan of action for bringing
about the sustainable development of Indonesia's marine resources. Much of the following
discussion originates from this document. The fundamental premise of the Action Plan is that
these resources and the natural systems of which they are a part must be managed for the long­
term, recognizing their strategic importance to the future welfare and prosperity of all
Indonesians. At present, Indonesia has a rich endowment of marine resources which is sufficient
to accommodate a growing population and labor force. They found, however, a pressing need to
improve the management of these resources if their productivity is to be sustained and their
economic development potential fully exploited.
The sustainable use of marine biodiversity through management and conservation can never be
achieved if the policy-making processes and its implementation provisions are overly
complicated. The technical and management skills of government officers within the relevant
agencies must allow for the development and implementation of sustainable development
programs.
Institutional strengthening involves: national policies, jurisdiction, mandates and organization,
and management capabilities. All of these must be supported by a sufficient budget. The objective
is to formulate and implement effective national marine policies which are necessary to manage
34

Appendix 2
the sustainable development of marine resources. While the core of an excellent institutional
framework is already present in Indonesia, a few strategic changes and support mechanisms are
needed to provide a secure foundation for marine developmenL
International experience demonstrates that sound management of marine regions and resources
requires clear national policies and objectives: the government, as a whole, must be able to move
in a consistent direction. For each sector, potential cross-sectoral overlaps in the use of
ecosystems, resource bases and land areas must be identified and resolved. In addition, the
training and education programs which prepare individuals for government service or career
advancement need to build resource and conservation awareness, as do all programs which
influence people who may be involved in the management of marine resources.
BAPPENAS should set up the mechanism for the management of marine regions and resources. It
must define its structure, its terms of reference, and its reporting relationships and
responsibilities, in consultation with such implementing agencies. The mechanism would
oversee policy formulation, serving as a vehicle for high-level discussion of policy issues and
strategies. They would identify all government functions and sub-functions. They would also
determine the appropriate management role for each level of government and the management
capabilities of the institutions in different regions targeted for development. In addition they
would develop consistent national guidelines within which marine-related decentralization,
deconcentration and co-administration processes can proceed.
Implementation of the actions outlined in this chapter will require a gradual and long-term
program of institutional development. This part should include appropriate management studies,
extensive consultations with responsible agencies, and an open-minded, adaptive approach to
implementation, in terms of marine biodiversity management and conservation. The approach
will focus on key institutional processes and priority regions so that management development
efforts are not spread too thin. At the same time, the mechanism should establish momentum
through changes which have a high impact on improving management.
b. Policy
(1) Simplify policy-making processes and their implementation provisions.
(2) Identify and resolve potential cross-sectoral overlaps in the use of ecosystems, resource
bases and land areas.
(3) Establish a mechanism for the management of marine regions and resources.
(4) Focus on key institutional processes and priority areas so that management development is
not spread too thin.
3.3 USE IT SUSTAINABLY
3.3.1 ExPLOITATION OF MARINE BIODIVERSIlY
a. Background
It is recognized that resources are preserved because of their perceived value. This value includes
all the benefits which mankind gains directly (e.g., food), indirectly (e.g., mangroves preventing
erosion) as well as values which are not only anthropocentric such as their value to other species
(e.g., cycling carbon) or simply their right of existence. Public education will assist
communities to recognize all these benefits. Marine resources, even those within conservation
areas, must develop and maintain their value it they are to be preserved. This valuation happens
largely through their use. If human use is ecologically sustainable then the value and resource will
survive. In instances where a resource cannot be directly used in an ecologically sustainable way,
then it is vital that the other direct benefits to the community be widely understood so that
attempts at conservation are supported.
35

Appendix 2
b. Policy
(1) Encourage sustainable exploitation of marine biodiversity resources in accordance with
national regulations and international agreements.
(2) Firmly discourage destructive practices such as dynamiting, and wide-spectrum poisons,
particularly in conservation areas, and provide those practicing these methods with the
training and opportunities to pursue sustainable practices.
(3) Use income derived for conservation areas principally to aid in the maintenance and
development of income generating potential for the area and for local communities.
(4) Reserve the use of marine resources, where possible, for local communities; they must have
the degree of control over these resources which promotes and inspires their active
participation in sustainable practices.
4 • ACTION PLAN*
SAVE IT
4 . 1 COMMUNITY AWARENESS
Objective
Achieve community awareness of the importance of marine biodiversity management, and secure the
support and participation of communities in management activities.
4.1.1 INCREASE PUBUC UNDERSTANDING OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY BY
PROVIDING INFORMATION IN THE MASS MEDIA AND EXTENSION PROGRAMS
Priority Site: Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park, Jakarta (extending to large population
centers close to and/or within critical marine areas (Technical Appendix -Appendix 3)
Institutions involved: Directorate General of PHPA, WWF Indonesia Program, Sibelut,
Gugus Analisis, PEMDA DKI, and the Directorate of Education, Ministry of Information,
TVRI/RCTI/fPI, newspapers and journalists.
Action:
1. Provide information to assist the public to understand the importance of marine
biodiversity, emphasize the potential and problems of the priority sites -this can be
undertaken through cooperation among research institutions, universities and regional
NGOs.
2. Produce television and radio advertisements, posters, brochures, and leaflets through
cooperation among related government institutions such as LH, PHPA, Fishery
Department; research institutions, NGOs and private sector who use marine biodiversity.
3. Train extension workers to improve their skills to increase people's understanding,
awareness and participation in the marine biodiversity management; this can be undertaken
through cooperation among research institutions, Dirjen PHPA, Dirjen Perikanan, P30-
LIPI, and NGOs.
4. Prepare guidelines for the implementation of existing laws and regulations supporting
public awareness and participation programs in marine biodiversity management
5. Conduct study tours of marine national parks, zoos, marine museums, and oceanariums
supported with information available for the participants.
*Names of suggested 'lead' agencies are underlined.
36

4.1.2
Appendix 2
INCREASE THE PUBUC'S SENSE OF BELONGING OF AND RESPONSmIIlTY FOR THE PRESERVATION
OF LOCAL MARINE BIODIVERSITY
Priority Site: Taka Bone Rate Marine National Park, (South Sulawesi), Kepulauan Seribu
Marine National Park, Jakarta, the Karimunjawa Islands (Central Java), and Teluk Cendrawasih.
Institutions involved: Ditjen BANGDA, South Sulawesi Regional Government, DKI,
Central Java Regional Government, Regional NGOs (Sibelut, Gugus Analis from Jakarta,
Lembaga Pengembangan Penelitian Pesisir dan Masyarakat (LP3M) from Ujung Pandang, WWF
Indonesia Program, Universities (IPB, University of Indonesia, Hasanuddin University and
Diponegoro University), Ditjen PHPA, P30 LIPI and Ditjen Perikanan.
Action:
1. Make the public aware of existing marine biodiversity laws and legislation so that they
may know their rights and responsibilities; this can be undertaken with cooperation among
universities, PHPA, Fishery Offices and NGOs.
2. Make local institutions more effective to monitor marine biodiversity destruction through
informal discussions between the community and NGOs.
3. Form a dialogue forum between the Government and NGOs both at local, regional and
national level to discuss destruction of marine biodiversity.
4. Raise funds to support public awareness and participation programs in marine biodiversity
management -whether from the community, government, private sector or foreign donors.
4. 1 .3 INFORM TOURISTS AND TOURIST INDUSTRY STAFF OF THE PROTECTED STATUS OF INDoNESIA'S
ENDANGERED MARINE SPECIES
Priority Site: Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park, Jakarta, and the Denpassar, Bali
Institutions involved: Ministry of Tourism, Bali Regional Government, DKI, Central Java
Regional Government, Regional NGOs (Sibelut, Gugus Analis from Jakarta, WWF Indonesia
Program, Bali Development Board, Ditjen PHPA, P30 LIPI and Ditjen Perikanan.
Action:
1. Make incoming foreign tourists, hotel staff and souvenir shop staff aware of the protected
status of some Indonesian marine life including marine turtles.
2. Discourage tourists from buying endangered species or products made from endangered
species as food, handicrafts, souvenirs etc.
3. Hold short informative workshops for tourist hotel, excursion and shop staff to inform
them of the status of marine species in Indonesia and of their responsibilities (in
conjunction with other useful training such as identification of marine organisms, safety
procedures etc.):
3.1 Produce colour marine organism field identification cards which also shows protected
species; and
3.2 Offer some form of certification for staff attending information workshops.
4. Inform tourists of status that their government places on these species and products (they
will not purchase items that they will not be allowed to import into their countries).
4.1.4 EsTABUSH AND DEVELOP MARINE MUSEUMS BOTH AT REGIONAL AND NATIONAL LEVELS
Priority Site: Jakarta, Semarang and Ujung Pandang
37

Appendix 2
Institutions involved: P30 LIPI, Oceanarium Ancol, Department of Education and Culture,
Marine Science Program (lPB, Diponegoro University and Hasanuddin University), NGOs, WWF
Indonesia Program and the private sector.
Action:
1. Make the public aware of existing result of research and filed laboratory available such as
the Pari Island (P30 LIPI), by increasing and adding new dioramas on marine biodiversity
collection in the Gelanggang Samudera Jaya Ancol, as well as publicize widely new
programs available at Ancol through mass-media.
2. Exploring new opportunity to establish new regional Gelanggang Samudera and marine,
with a priority location in Semarang and Ujung Pandang.
3 . Expand facilities supporting taxonomic surveys of marine resources.
4.1.5 SUPPORT NGOs EFFORTS TO UNDERTAKE MARINE EDUCATION FOR THE COMMUNITY
Priority Site: Coastal community around Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park,
Karimunjawa and Taka Bone Rate.
Institutions involved: LH, Ditjen PHPA. Ditjen Perikanan, WALHI, Gugus Analisis,
Sibelut, LP3M, and WWF Indonesia Program.
Action:
1 . Fund NGOs to plan extension programs for the community around the marine conservation
areas, on the value and benefits of marine biodiversity, particularly for future uses.
2. Undertaking integrated extension program, by involving regional NGOs to train the
community on people motivation and social preparedness of the community.
4.1.6 INCREASE PARTICIPATION IN IMPROVING NEARSHORE WATER QUAIlTY
Priority Site: Java, North Sumatra, Aceh, East and West Kalirnantan
Institutions Involved: BANGDA, Directorate General of Fisheries; Ministry of Forestry;
P30-LIPI; Local Government; PHPA; Department of Home Affairs; National Land-Use;
Department of Public Works
Action:
1. Encourage and regulate local participation in the implementation of land-use and waste
disposal practices.
2. Reduce the use of activities causing sedimentation and pollution.
4 . 2 MANAGEMENT OF EXISTING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
Objective
Establish and implement appropriate management for all existing marine protected areas.
4.2.1 MANAGE MARINE PROTECTED AREAs
Priority Site: existing marine conservation areas.
InstitutIons Involved: Ditjen PHPA, P30 LIPI, Marine Fishery Research Institution, Ditjen
Tourism, NGOs and LH.
38

Action:
1 . Make the public aware of the existing national strategies for marine habitats.
2. Develop and implement management plans for conservation areas:
2.1 Complete surveys and establish a clear boundary marking system;
2.2 Provide staff and equipment to manage the areas;
Appendix 2
2.3 Provide moorings and other structures to improve the amenity of the areas while
reducing damage;
2.4 Provide both comprehensive and community-based education and enforcement
programs;
2.5 Provide information/training to enforcement staff. legal agents and judges on the
purposes and value of marine conservation and existing legislation; and
2.6 Provide scheduled monitoring and evaluation of sites and management practices.
3. Develop and maintain databases on the distribution and uses of. and threats to. habitats and
species within marine conservation areas.
4. Consolidate smaller conservation areas into larger viable-sized areas which include a variety
of habitats. this includes creation of integrated management areas which combine terrestrial
and marine conservation areas.
5. Purchase coastal and island land adjacent to existing and proposed conservation areas (buffer
zones) where controlled development can occur and from which profits can be used to
maintain the area.
6. Create a system of controlled concessions within conservation areas where well-managed
and controlled private enterprise arrangements such as floating pontoons etc .• increase the
value of the area while contributing to its maintenance costs.
7. Identify conflicts related to inter-departmental cooperation. and develop ways of resolving
existing conflict.
4.2.2 PROVIDE EXPERIENCE FOR GOVERNMENT OFFlCERS TO IMPROVE MARINE BIODIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT
Priority Site: The Great Barrier Reef (Australia). Hawaii. Caribbean and Aorida (U.S.)
Institutions Involved: LH. Ditjen PHPA. P30-UPI. Ditjen Perikanan and Department of
Education and Culture.
Action:
1 . Visit countries known to have expertise on marine biodiversity aspects. to gain information
and experience.
2. Follow up visits by discussion on future cooperative project. such as cooperation in a joint
research and survey in Indonesia (related with section 4.8.1 and 4.8.2).
4 .3 IMPROVE ENFORCEMENT
Obj ectlve
Enforce regulations controlling all existing and future marine protected areas.
39

Appendix 2
4.3.1 IMPROVE ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS PROTECI1NG ENDANGERED SPECIES
Priority Site: National
Institutions involved: Ditjen PHPA, P30 LIPI, LH, NGOs, Universities, Oit. Bina Sumber
Hayati (Ditjen Perikanan).
Action:
1 . Disseminate information of the list of protected marine biota, through different media so as
to make the Pemda more effective: local NGO, schools, fisher groups, traditional groups and
mass media.
2. Prepare a Guideline for implementation of Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1973 on the
Ratification of CITES.
3. Train PHPA staff in law enforcement and monitoring, including staff working as field
workers, harbor staff, airport staff, and administration staff.
4. Improve coordination between enforcement agencies.
5. Implement actions in 4.1.1, 4.1.2, and 4.1.3.
4.4 ApPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT OF MARINE HABITATS
Objective
Establish appropriate management for all marine environments including mangrove forests, coral reefs
and seagrass meadows, with a time table for achieving the promised increases in the number and extent
of marine conservation areas.
4.4.1 CONSERVE ESTUARIES, WEILANDS AND MANGROVE EcOSYSTEMS
Priority Site: !rian Jaya, East Kalimantan, South Sulawesi and the north coast of Java.
Institutions involved: Ditjen PHPA (Directorate Nature Conservation, Directorate National
Park and Tourism Forest), LH, BAPPENAS, BPN (National Land Board), Perum Perhutani, INTAG
(National Forest Inventory), BRLKT. AWB, Bina Swadauya, The Mangrove Foundation, Marine
Fishery Research Institution, P30 LIPI and universities (Cenderawasih University, Larnbung
Mangkurat University. Hasanuddin University and Diponegoro University).
Action:
1. Review the Conservation Area System of mangrove habitats in Indonesia, indicating needs
and possibilities for establishment of new mangrove reserves:
.
1.1 Review the Conservation Area System of mangrove habitats in Indonesia, and design
a program for improved management and conservation of remaining mangrove
habitats, with emphasis on the mangroves of Segara Anakan (Central Java), Sungai
Sembilang (South Sumatra), Teluk Apu (Pulau Buru), Lariang (South SuI awes i). Muara
Sebuku and Kayan (both East Kalimantan), Teluk Kupang (West Timor), and Lorentz
N.P. and Teluk Bintuni (both !rian Jaya) (see Technical Appendix -Appendix 3.2);
1 .2 Assess the need and possibilities for boundary relocation of existing protected areas
in Indonesia to include mangrove habitats;
1.3 Carry out an economic and ecological assessment of the impacts and advantages of
the waterbird colonies in brackish water fish pond areas in the Brantas and Solo deltas
(East Java), and design a pilot project to improve integrated management of these
colonies, taking into account the relevant institutions/organizations and bureaucratic
40

Appendix 2
aspects involved;
1.4 Carry out an impact assessment of coastal development on the north coast of West
Java on the viability of the waterbird colonies of the Pulau Rambut, Pulau Dua and
Muara Angke nature reserves; and
1.5 Identify needs and possibilities for mangrove rehabilitation and reforestation, in
particular the establishment of green-belts, and the role of farmers cooperatives in
this process.
2. Evaluate the results, constraints and efficiency of ongoing government supported programs
of social forestry, protection, and rehabilitation of mangrove forest areas in Indonesia,
including the present and potential role of NGOs and local communities, and their perception
of present programs:
2.1 Make a detailed inventory at sub-district level (kecamatan) in Java of all mangrove
land under jurisdiction of Perum Perhutani, identifying conflicts in land-use and land
ownership with local resource users, and design a project to improve the mapping and
demarcation of mangrove forest units of Perum Perhutani, and dissemination of this
type of information to the public;
2.2 Analyze the social forestry program of Perum Perhutani regarding the issuing of
stewardship to farmers for resource utilization, and design a project improving the
administration of land titles, legal ways to settle land disputes, and develop workable
proposals to give local people legal rights on mangrove land or resources as
appropriate;
2.3 Look into ways of speeding-up the implementation of the mangrove green-belt
regulations, and design a detailed and comprehensive investment project aimed at
acceleration of mangrove rehabilitation and reforestation, paying particular attention
to the role and scale of involvement of local communities and NGOs; and
2.4 Evaluate the results, constraints and efficiency of ongoing government supported
programs of social forestry, protection, and rehabilitation of mangrove forest areas
in Java and South Sulawesi, and design guidelines for implementation of mangrove
rehabilitation all over Indonesia.
3. Review existing training programs for government officials and extension workers related
to mangrove rehabilitation and social forestry, and in particular their effectiveness in
improving skills related to promoting and managing community participation and
collaboration with NGOs. Develop recommendations for necessary improvements of such
training programs, and design of extension packages and manuals for mangrove
management and community participation in mangrove rehabilitation and reforestation.
4. To develop a spatial planning document for tidal habitats in all provinces of Indonesia in
line with the Spatial Planning Act No. 4 of 1992 (Rencana Undang-Undang Tata Ruang
1992):
4.1 Analyze the present (draft) spatial planning documents and map developed under the
RUTRD 1992 on mangrove management, conservation and rehabilitation aspects.
identifying needs for improvement;
4.2 Develop guidelines and detailed recommendations for the improvement of the spatial
planning on mangrove management. conservation and rehabilitation at the
provincial level; and
4.3 Develop a spatial planning document (map) on mangrove resources, associated
habitats and present and proposed land-use in the coastal areas of all provinces (Tata
Guna Hutan Kesepakatan Bakau).
5. Review the present institutional framework of decision making regarding mangrove land-use
41

Appendix 2
planning, and issuing of permits for land and resource exploitation, and develop
recommendations for improvements and increased efficiency of the system:
5.1 Review the present institutional framework of decision making regarding land-use
planning, and issuing of permits for land and resource exploitation in Java and South
Sulawesi;
5.2 Develop recommendations for improvement of the above at provincial and national
level;
5.3 Design in close collaboration with BPN (National Land Board) and other relevant
Indonesian agencies of national and provincial administrative level a 3-year program
to identify and clarify boundaries of private and state land ownership of mangrove
forest and reforestation areas in Indonesia; and
5.4 Design in close cooperation with BPN a project to improve the centralized
coordination and monitoring of the allocation of land titles, permits and planning for
the exploitation, protection and rehabilitation of mangrove forest and land resources
in Indonesia.
6. Design and develop a database/GIS system regarding mangrove land and forest status, land
titles, and certification, to assist national and local governments in maintaining an up-to­
date inventory of mangrove resources, developments and threats, in order to facilitate
management planning:
6.1 Compile and make a complete review of the data on mangrove resources in Indonesia,
available at INTAG National Forest Inventory, provincial offices of BRLKT, PHPA,
Perum Perhutani and of the relevant projects and institutions, in particular, with
regard to forest status, land-use, and land titles/certification;
6.2 Identify the most efficient way of large-scale mapping, and data storage and analyses,
of mangrove resources on Indonesia, in close collaboration with the GOI
(INTAG)/FAO National Forest Inventory Project;
6.3 Produce a draft map of mangrove resources of Indonesia (scale 1:50.000), based on
the format and mapping, and survey data of the National Forest Inventory Project; and
6.4 Design an investment project, for the development of a Database/GIS system on
Indonesian mangrove resources, mangrove land-use and forest status, land titles and
certification. with initial implementation and running restricted to the mangroves of
Java and South Sulawesi.
7. Develop an effective program ("sosialisasi") to enhance the enforcement of regulations
regarding mangrove management via improved information services and training to both the
pUblic, and the Local Government that has to enforce these regulations.
8 . Develop a system for assessing the potential for successful tambak development, based on:
soil suitability, ecology of fish pond operation, green belt requirements,
infrastructure/marketing, environmental impacts, the national protected area system.
9. The introduction of a tambak land tax to encourage tambak efficiency improvements and
reconversion of failed tambaks to mangroves.
10. Government measures to impose a total ban (moratorium) on further mangrove conversions
to brackish water fish ponds in critical mangrove areas of Java, Aceh, North Sumatra,
Lampung, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, North Sulawesi, South Sulawesi and Southeast
Sulawesi.
11. Prepare a Guide for Implementation of Presidential Decree No. 32 of 1990, with
consideration of regional input and the Act No. 24 of 1992 on Spatial Use Management.
42

Appendix 2
12. Encourage and facilitate the preparation of the National Strategy for Mangrove Forest
Conservation and Management.
4.4.2 CONSERVE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS
Priority Site: supporting priority sites in the National Strategy for Coral Reef Conservation
and Management.
Institutions involved: Ditjen PHPA, P30 UPI, Marine Fishery Research Institution, Ditjen
Tourism, NGOs and LH.
Action:
1. Make the public aware of the existing National Strategy on Coral Reef Ecosystem
Management.
2. Implement National Strategy on Coral Reef Ecosystem Management.
3. Develop and maintain databases on the distribution and uses of, and threats to, coral reef
systems.
4. Identify conflicts related to inter-departmental cooperation, and develop ways of resolving
existing conflict.
4.4.3 ADD SEAGRASS EcOSYSTEMS TO TIlE CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATING MARINE CONSERVATION
AREAs, AND TO PROTECT TIlE HABITAT OF PROTECTED MARINE SPECIES SUCH AS SEA
TuRTLES AND DUGONG.
Priority Site: shallow marine areas around the Kepulauan Aru and Dobo island.
Institutions Involved: Ditjen PHPA, P30 LIPI, LH, NGOs, Universities and WWF Indonesia
Program.
Action:
1. Prepare the National Strategy on Seagrass Conservation and Management.
2. Review the economical value of fishery in the seagrass ecosystem.
3. Protect migration routes, and sea turtle and dugong habitats by including the seagrass
ecosystem into the existing marine conservation areas or including seagrass ecosystem in
the site priority list to be designated as new conservation areas.
4. Implement appropriate actions from 4.2.1 and 4.4.2.
4 • 5 PLANNING AND AMDAL PROCESSES
Objective
Develop means of assessing the economic and social value of marine biodiversity, and develop the
policy means to use these values in the planning and AMDAL processes involved in the management of
marine development.
4.5.1 ExTEND TIlE USE OF SPATIAL USE MANAGEMENT IN MARINE DEVELOPMENT.
Priority Site: The North Coast of lava.
Institutions Involved: BAPEDAL, BANGDA, LH, Badan Pertanahan Nasional (BPN), Pemda,
Ditgen of Tourism, Ditjen Sea Transportation, Ditjen PHPA, Ditjen Perikanan.
43

Appendix 2
Action:
1. Characterize the ecological (biophysical) aspects of marine areas. to determine suitable
designation, both for macro spatial planning (such as preservation, conservation and the
use of zones for development) and for micro spatial planning to allocate development zones
more specifically for development activities.
2. Analyze biophysical needs (based on ecological criteria) for each zone and for development
activities to support the characterization effort as mentioned on point 1.
3. Analyze ecological compatibility among development activities.
4. Develop an index of environmental sensitivity for the significant marine areas.
5. Use biodiversity considerations in the future setting of environmental standards.
6. Create a database (Action 4.7.1) useful for managers and planners.
7. Devise a scheme for evaluating existing biodiversity and for assessing potential loses and
risks.
8. Legislate that biodiversity values (Action 4.5.2) be used in existing planning and AMDAL
considerations.
9. Write manuals and offer training for AMDAL evaluations involving marine environments
or for projects potentially influencing marine environments.
4.5.2 DETERMINE THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY FOR PROJECT PLANNING
PuRPoSES.
Priority Site: Taka Bone Rate. Kepulauan Seribu, Karimunjawa, Bunaken National Parks, and
Teluk Cendrawasih.
Institutions involved: LIP!. Marine Fishery Research Institution, P30 LIPI, Ditjen PHPA,
Ditjen Perikanan. Marine Science Program (IPB, Hasanuddin University. Diponegoro University
and Sam Ratulangi University).
Action:
1. Establish economic value of marine biodiversity, related to aspect of genetic. species, and
ecological processes within the critical ecosystems such as mangrove forest, coral reef,
seagrass bed and estuaries.
2. Develop a model for the assessment on natural resources destruction for marine ecosystems,
which includes mangrove forest. coral reef. seagrass bed, estuaries and other pelagic and
demersal ecosystems.
4.6 EDUCATION CURRICULUM
Objective
Include marine biodiversity in education curriculum.
4.6.1 INCLUDE EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY IN THE BIOLOGY AND EcOLOGY
LESSONS IN THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM FROM ELEMENTARY SCHOOL To UNIVERSITY.
Priority Site: National (especially Jakarta. Bogor. Semarang, and Ujung Pandang).
Institutions involved: Department of Education and Culture (Ditjen elementary and
secondary education, P3GIPA Ditjen Higher Education), Marine Biology Programs (IPB.
44

Appendix 2
Diponegoro University and Hasanuddin University), P30 LIPI, LH, WWF Indonesia Program,
NGOs, Diving Clubs and other interest clubs, UNESCO, ADB, Corporate Sector (British
Petroleum etc.).
Action:
1. Provide relevant material, particularly those which can be followed up, such as excursion to
the Marine National park, Museum, Oceanarium. Study Tour and other activities. These
facilities should play a larger role in the education of children and the general public.
2. Prepare sample programs, including inputs from NGOs such as diving clubs and nature lover
clubs, and to designate schools as pilot project to implement the sample program.
3. Raise funds to prepare material, visual aids tools and to implement the sample program
under LH coordination.
4. Establish a coordination team work among the Department of Education and Culture,
Universities, P30-LIPI and NGOs, to undertake the provision of material and prepare the
planning program for sample.
5. Commission the creation of educational and entertaining children's books to be used in
schools and sold privately (similar to programs undertaken by WWF and also by the Forum
Fisheries Agency in Honiara for South Pacific children).
STUDY IT
4.7 GIS DATABASES
Objective
Develop, update and maintain geographically-based databases of marine resources and biodiversity
which can be used for resource management and planning, and for the utilization of material for
biotechnology.
4.7.1 DEVELOP A MARINE BIODIVERSITY DATABASE SYSTEM.
Priority Site: N ationa!'
Institutions involved: BAKOSURTANAL, BPPT, LH. Marine Fishery Research Institution,
P30 LIPI, Ditjen PHPA, Marine Science Program (IPB, Hasanuddin University, Diponegoro
University, Sam Ratulangi University, Riau University, Pattimura University).
Action:
1. Survey users (including planners, taxonomists, managers, environmental groups and
private sector representatives) to determine the marine biodiversity data and information
needed to establish the type, scope and structure of database system.
2. Collect existing marine biodiversity data and information related to marine biodiversity
issues from the government institutions and private sector. This activity can be undertaken
at regional level (Province) under the proposed Regional Marine Biodiversity Data and
Information Center, while the National Marine Biodiversity Data and Information Center
will serve as a coordinator.
3. Establish a National Marine Biodiversity Data and Information Center involving existing
institutions (Marine Data Center P30 LIPI, INFlS, and BAKOSURT ANAL) supported by the
increase of number of qualified staff (full time), soft ware and hard ware. The National
Marine Biodiversity Data and Information Center should cooperate with the MREP.
4. Define the structure of the database (hierarchical and GIS-based) which should include
information on distributions, uses of, and threats to marine habitats, flora and fauna:
45

Appendix 2
4.1 A hierarchical system of marine habitat descriptions (similar to that proposed by
TNC) should be used to structure a habitat-based database.
5. Select or develop a common GIS-based database system;
5.1 The GIS-based system should have the ability to digitize maps, analyze remotely
sensed-images (e.g., satellite data), do traditional statistical and geographical
analyses, and produce maps as required.
6. Develop a protocol for sharing data amongst cooperating agencies:
6.1 Agree on common key database elements, provisions for the protection of privacy
and intellectual property, publication rights, and future contract arrangements.
4 • 8 INVENTORIES
Objective
Actively promote systematic surveys of the nation's marine resources and support the institutional
strengthening necessary for the timely training of marine taxonomists and parataxonomists.
4.8.1 COMPlEfE AND UPDATE INvENTORIES FOR ExISTING MARINE CONSERVATION AREAs.
Priority Site: Existing marine conservation areas.
Institutions involved: P30-LIPI, PHPA.
Action:
1. Complete inventories of existing marine conservation areas to provide data for a national
biodiversity database.
2. Review and revise the Marine Data Atlas (Salm and Halim 1984) for survey and resources
analysis.
4.8.2 COMPLETE LARGE-SCALE, COARSE, HABITAT SURVEYS OF KNOWN HIGH BIODIVERSITY AREAs
OurSIDE OF EXISTING MARINE CONSERVATION AREAs.
Priority Site: Known areas of high biodiversity outside of marine conservation areas.
Institutions involved: P30-LIPI. Marine Biology Programs (lPB, Diponegoro University
and Hasanuddin University), LH, WWF Indonesia Program, NGOs, Diving Clubs and other
interest clubs.
Action:
1. Complete large-scale, coarse, habitat surveys of known high biodiversity areas outside of
existing marine conservation areas to provide data for a national biodiversity database.
2. Review and revise the Marine Data Atlas (Salm and Halim 1984) as in 4.8.1.
4.8.3 INCREASE TIIE SKILLS AND PRODUCTIVITY OFT AXONOMISTS.
Priority Site: Jakarta, Semarang and Ujung Pandang
Institutions Involved: P30-LIPI, Marine Science Program (IPB, Diponegoro University and
Hasanuddin University).
Action:
1. Create special training programs for new graduates in biology and fishery, undertaken by
46

Appendix 2
UPI. with include subjects such as systematics. identification. collection methods. and data
base management.
2. Encourage more students to train as taxonomists by expanding and improving courses
which should be included as core curriculum.
3. Taxonomists involved in inventories should be. particularly. encouraged. There should be
career and salary incentives. The universities in the regions can form an information
network.
4. As part of extra-curricular activities students could be involved in survey work through
NGOs. such as nature lover clubs and diving clubs. This will encourage more students to
enter the field of marine taxonomy.
5. Train parataxonomists to collect specimens and do preliminary identifications. Working in
regional centres these individuals can improve the productivity of taxonomists. while
offering liaison with local communities from which they could be selected. Junior staff
should be trained in taxonomy and assist taxonomists in their work.
6. Prepare integrated research and survey packages in priority marine conservation areas. as a
media for the participants to get experience and practice skills.
7. Undertake international cooperation with the best universities with marine biodiversity
expertise (James Cook University. Australia; East-West Center. University of Hawaii. etc.
8. Increase support for Indonesian taxonomic journals and those seeking to publish their
findings in these journals.
4.9 EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Objective
Study and document the effects and mitigation of human activities such as pollution on marine
biodiversity.
4.9.1 EVALUATE POlLtmON THREATS TO MARINE BIODNERSITY.
Priority Site: Kepulauan Seribu. Malaka Strait. Makasar Strait.
Institutions Involved: BAPEDAL. LH. Ditjen Mines and Oil. Ditjen Sea Transportation.
P30 UPI. Marine Fishery Research Institute and universities.
Action:
1. Experimentally establish the effects of various pollutants and contaminants (such as oil).
and eutrophication on marine habitats. This is critical for future environmental
prosecutions.
2. Assess the assimilation capacity of critical marine areas.
3. Make a risk assessment of critical marine and coastal sites (habitats) and produce detailed
maps to be used by national and regional governments.
4.9.2 EVALUATE EFFECTS OF HARVESTING ON MARINEBIODNERSITY.
Priority Site: Coastal waters on the north coast of Java.
Institutions Involved: Ditjen Perikanan, BAPEDAL, LH, Ditjen Mines and Oil, Ditjen Sea
Transportation, P30 LIPI, Marine Fishery Research Institute and universities (IPB and
Diponegoro University).
47

Appendix 2
Action:
1. Study the effects of harvesting on the community structure and ecological processes as the
main regulator for marine biodiversity and critical marine areas.
2. Study the effects of harvesting activities in the mangrove ecosystem and mangrove forest
conversion for other uses, such as brackish water culture and settlement, on marine
biodi versity.
3. Study the effects of harvest for biotechnological purposes.
4.9.3 STIJDY EcOLOGICAL RESTORATION.
Priority Site: Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park.
Institutions Involved: Ditjen PHPA, Marine Fishery Research Institution, P30 LIPI,
Marine Science Program (IPB).
Action:
1. Study endangered marine species restoration.
2. Research the ex-situ conservation of rare marine species.
3. Study damaged marine ecosystem restoration.
4. Identify and develop technique for ecological restoration for damaged marine ecosystem.
4.9.4 REsEARCH MONITORING METHODS.
Priority Site: Bunaken and Kepulauan Seribu National parks.
Institutions Involved: P30-LIPI, Marine Fishery Research Institution, Ditjen PHPA,
Marine Science Program (IPB and Sam Ratulangi University).
Action:
1. Develop effective monitoring of the quality of marine biodiversity on mangrove forest,
coral reef, seagrass bed and estuaries, to reduce the impacts of human activities.
2. Establish standard methods for monitoring marine environments and marine biodiversity.
4. 1 0 LIBRARY AND REFERENCE COLLECTIONS.
Objective
Improve capacities of libraries and reference collections to provide information on marine biodiversity.
4.10.1 IMPROVE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES AND PuBuc LmRARIES SERVICES RELATED To MARINE
CONSERVATION AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT.
Priority Site: Jakarta, Bogor, Semarang and Ujung Pandang.
Institutions Involved: PDII LIPI, P30 LIPI, Marine Science Program (IPB, Diponegoro
University and Hasanuddin University), UNESCO, WWF Indonesia Program.
Action:
1. Develop university libraries at priority universities, particularly to increase the references
and information collection related to marine biodiversity, and improve services to provide
this information.
48

Appendix 2
2. Develop the Center for Information and Documentation UPI. and the P30 UPI library. by
adding information and collection of references related to marine biodiversity.
4.10.2 IMPROVE TAXONOMIC REFERENCE COllEcnONS AND MUSEUM FACILITIES.
Priority Site: Jakarta, Semarang and Ujung Pandang.
Institutions involved: P30-UPI. Marine Science Program (IPB. Diponegoro University and
Hasanuddin University).
Action:
1. The maintenance of museum specimens would be facilitated by the use of a computer
database specifically designed to document and trace specimens and using bar codes. This
facilitates tracing the whereabouts of specimens through a networked collection system.
2. Improve museum facilities (Actions 4.1.4 and 4.10.1) which will involve construction.
expansion. and modernization of facilities to identify. house and display specimens.
Storage of specimens should initially be coordinated through existing museums such as the
Zoological Museum and the Bogor Herbarium. however. there should be plans for a Museum
of Natural History with a special Marine section.
USE IT
4.11 SUSTAINABLE USE
Objective
Develop and promote solutions to socio-economic problems by offering ecologically sustainable uses
of marine genetic materials and products as alternatives to destructive practices of marine harvest now
threatening these resources.
4.11.1 REsEARCH THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF MARINE BrODIVERSITY.
Priority Site: All Indonesian coastal areas (particularly eastern Indonesia).
Institutions involved: Directorate Biodiversity (Ditjen Fishery). Marine Fishery Research
Institution. P30-UPI. and universities.
Action:
1. Inventory the potential. quality and distribution of marine habitats critical to fisheries
(mangrove forest, coral reef. and seagrass bed).
.
2. Inventory the potential viability (MSY and TAC) of ecologically and economically
important species distribution.
3. Elucidate ecological interactions of key species (food web and food-chain).
4. Describe migration pattern of key species.
5. Examine the potential marine resources and the current level of exploitation. to determine
the rate of optimum sustainable use.
6. Examine the sustainability and productivity of brackish water aquaculture compared to other
coastal uses such as integrated mangrove management systems.
4.11.2 MARINE BrOTECHNOLOG Y.
Priority Site: all Indonesia particularly. East Indonesian Waters.
49

Appendix 2
Institutions involved: P30-LIPI, Marine Fishery Research Institution, Directorate
Biodiversity (Ditjen Fishery), and universities.
Action:
1 . Analyze bioactive chemicals for key species for future extraction purposes.
2. Set up facilities for the extraction of potentially bioactive compounds from marine
organisms and their primary screening.
3 . Develop guidelines and standard contracts for the sale and licensing of biological material.
4. Investigate ways that coastal communities can participate in the biotechnology industry
and/or its benefits.
4.11.3 CHARAcrERIZE Soclo-EcONOMIC ASPECfS OF CRITICAL MARINE AREAs.
Priority Site: The North Coast of Java (Pantura) extending nationally.
Institutions Involved: Marine Fishery Research Institution, P30-UPI, Ditjen PHPA, Marine
Science Program (IPB and Diponegoro University).
Action:
1. Complete a socio-economic survey of the use of marine biodiversity at present, and project
future uses.
2. Identify potential cross-sectoral overlaps in the use of ecosystems, resource bases and land
areas:
2.1. Find ways to make trade-offs and reduce conflicts. Examine ways to rationalize
policies at the national level to avoid problems in the field.
3. Survey the socio-economical conditions of selected coastal communities related with the
use of marine biodiversity including future biotechnology uses.
4. Encourage the use of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects within and adjacent
to Marine Protected Areas to allow access by multiple users.
4.11.4 Marine and Brackish-water Culture.
Priority Site: Lampung, Bali, Riau, Bantam Island, and Eastern parts of Indonesia.
Institutions Involved:_Balai Budidaya Laut Lampung, Directorate General of Fisheries, P30-
LIPI, BAPPEDA, Department of Tourism, Department of Agriculture.
Action:
1. Develop a program to provide an alternative sources of income for coastal communities
(increasing incomes of communities from non-fishing activities).
2. Improve aquaculture technique, production, price and market systems.
3. Provide marine and brackish-water culture extension workers.
4. Provide training to improve the knowledge and abilities of fish farmers in marine culture.
50

4.11.5 DEVELOP COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SUSTAINABLE FISHING PRACTICES.
Priority Site: Taka Bone Rate National Park (South Sulawesi).
Appendix 2
Institutions involved: Pemda of South Sulawesi, Hasanuddin University, Sub-BKSDA Ujung
Pandang, Fishery Office, LP3M, Sulawesi Region Development Program (CIDA Project) and
WWF Indonesia Program.
Action:
1. Develop a program to increase income or provide alternative sources of income for the
coastal communities which depend upon marine resources.
2. Initiate a socio-economic study of coastal community in several critical areas, which also
includes cultural aspects (local and regional identity) as well as the rights and
responsibilities of the community in the use of marine biodiversity resources.
3. Encourage the cooperation and close involvement of Regional Government, Universities,
local NGOs, traditional and religious groups.
4. Provide credit facilities for the traditional fishermen.
5. Provide training in the post-harvest technics particularly involving women.
6. Improve and provide training in the use of non-destructive catching techniques while firmly
discouraging the destructive uses of dynamite and poisons.
7. Improve price and market systems.
8. Extend practices of local control of marine resources, and programs of compensation for
damage to biodiversity by industry or individuals.
9. Support and extend the use of sustainable, traditional resource-use/management practices.
4.11 .6 ENCOURAGE THE USE OF ENDEMIC SPECIES FOR MARICULTURE.
Priority Site: National.
Institutions involved: Ditjen PHPA, P30-LIPI, LH, NGOs, Universities, Dit. Bina Sumber
Hayati.
Action:
1. Introduce guidelines for the importation and introduction of exotic species into Indonesia.
2. Encourage the use of local/endemic species for mariculture projects.
3. Develop markets for local/endemic species.
4.11.7 MARINE EcOTOURISM.
Priority Site: National. especially eastern Indonesia (Cendrawasih Bay, Irian Jaya).
Institutions involved: Ditjen PHPA, LH, Dept Tourism, NGOs, Universities, PEMDA.
Action:
1 . Compile a current world-wide review of marine tourism literature.
2. Complete a review of the current marine tourism development strategy in Indonesia.
51

Appendix 2
3 . Develop environmentally sound guidelines for marine tourism.
4. Prepare detailed proposals to strengthen identified weakness in the system, to develop
regional ties. and to develop policy for marine tourism.
5. Develop an appropriate database structure for managing marine tourism.
6. Develop a model for marine tourism development which allows for controlled development
from which significant benefits go to local residents.
52

ApPENDIX 3
NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR MARINE BIODIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT: TECHNICAL ApPENDIX

1 . INTRODUCTION
In this document marine biodiversity is defmed as the biodiversity associated with all habitats from the
marine high-water level to the deep oceans. These habitats include. but are not limited to. mangrove.
forests. coral reefs. seagrass meadows. and soft-bottom areas. Estuarine areas are included but the lentic
and lotic freshwater habitats are not It is recognized. however. that these freshwater habitats urgently
require consideration. It is further recognized that the flora and fauna included in this defmition of marine
biodiversity may spend important segments of their lives in freshwater or even in terrestrial
environments (as in the case of some crab species).
1 • 1 BACKGROUND
1.1.1 DEANmONS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the diversity of life. not simply the range of individual species. It includes
everything from communities of species with their distinctive ecosystems and complex
interrelationships. to the genetic content of the many animal and plant varieties.
The diversity of life is what enables life to survive environmental change. The study of
biodiversity can focus on various levels of organization including:
Genes
Varieties
Species
Habitat
Landscapes
Processes
Cultures
Genes.
Working with plant and animal genes offers some advantages as tests are available to quantify
similarities in genetic content. If genes are protected and conserved then all higher levels such as
species will also be protected (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
VarIeties.
Genes can change or mutate very quickly. have much redundancy. and differ considerably in their
importance or expressions in organisms. These characteristics make them less useful for many
studies of biodiversity. As a result. some consider it easier to work with animal varieties or
strains which are different in phenotype or appearance.
Species.
Much biodiversity work concentrates at the level of species or other taxonomic levels.
Habitats.
Conservation work often focuses on habitats. Habitats such as coral reefs can be described by
their key plants and animals. If habitats are conserved then species dependent on that habitat are
also conserved. If the habitat is large or complex enough it is possible to also preserve sufficient
varieties and genes to allow the communities to survive natural environmental changes.
Landscapes.
This is the spatial variety of the various land uses and ecosystems within a larger area measuring
from 100 to 10.000,000 km2 (Cairns and Lackey. 1992). This concept of biodiversity is
particularly important to some planning processes and some industries such as eco-tourism.
Processes.
These are the processes that shape and maintain living communities. To conserve ecosystems
with their biodiversity these processes need to be maintained. Destruction of key processes can
result in the extinction of many species of plants and animals.
55

Appendix 3
Cultures.
The variety of hwnan cultures and ways of life can be considered to be part of biodiversity. All
animals, particularly higher manunals, may develop complex sets of behaviors which are often
specific to different populations. Cultural differences are most commonly associated with
hwnans. Hwnan cultural diversity may have ensured the survival of mankind to date, and may be
essential for hwnans to survive the environmental and biological threats of the future.
Initially, conservation should concentrate on protecting and supporting habitats or ecosystems.
Although this cannot guarantee protection for all species or varieties within species, this has two
advantages. Firstly, habitat destruction is the major cause of local and ultimately global
extinctions. Secondly, it is more realistic to organize conservation on the basis of habitat, since
information is more likely to be available and reliable at this level. With exploited species we
must, however, make an exception -they require priority consideration. In general, it is better to
concentrate on habitats initially, and later on species, for measuring, evaluating and conserving
biodiversity (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
1.1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MARINE BIODNERSITY
Biodiversity is important because it maintains life as we know it. The loss of genetic or
biological diversity weakens a popUlation's ability to adapt to environmental change. The loss
of populations and species weakens a community's ability to adapt; the loss of functional
diversity weakens an ecosystem's ability to adapt; and the loss of ecological diversity weakens
the whole biosphere's ability to adapt. Because biological and physical processes are interactive,
losses of biological diversity may also precipitate further environmental change. This
progressively destructive routine results in impoverished biological systems, which are
susceptible to collapse when faced with further environmental changes (Thome-Miller and
Catena. 1991).
Marine biodiversity is significant to Indonesia for two main reasons. The first reason is that
biodiversity in marine environments (those from the deep sea to the high-tide level) is perhaps
greater than on land (even considering the richness of rainforests). The second is that marine
environments are so important to Indonesia.
It is believed that there are about 10
to 30 million species on earth, of
which 1.4 million have so far been
named or characterized. Terrestrial
habitats are known to support more
species, largely because of insects;
however, marine ecosystems have a
greater nwnber of higher taxa. and
hence a greater variation between
species (Medley and Gaudian, 1990).
Marine habitats host 31 of the
world's 32 existing animal phyla. 14
of which are exclusively marine
(WRI/-IUCN/UNEP, 1992) (Figurel).
Amongst vertebrates, fishes are the
oldest, the most diverse, and the
largest group; they outnumber all
other vertebrate species combined.
Fishes have existed for 400 million
years, compared with 2 million years
for humans, 150 million years for
birds, and 240 million years for
mammals (Raup, 1988).
FIGURE 1
Distribution of animal phyla by habitat
(from WRIIIUCNIUNEP, 1992)
Marine (33.3%)
80th (64.3%)
Coral reefs rival tropical rain forests in diversity and may surpass them in productivity. The
world's coral reefs account for only 600,000 km2, yet support a half a million species (one half
of them fish) (Beatly, 1991). For example, Australia's Great B arrier Reef is 2,000 km long and
supports 300 species of corals, 1,500 fishes, more than 4,000 mollusks, 250 bird species as well
56

Appendix 3
as turtles, whales, and porpoises . Throughout the Indo-West Pacific coral reefs there are 3,000
species of fishes alone.
Indonesia's marine habitats support a large proportion of its known biodiversity resource. This
proportion is expected to increase when these habitats receive as much study as terrestrial
habitats. For example, deep-sea benthic fauna appears to have extraordinarily high diversity but
this area is largely unexplored. When the oceans have been explored as thoroughly as terrestrial
habitats have been, we may discover even greater biodiversity. Recently, new marine organisms
(like methane-feeding mussels) have been discovered. Newly discovered habitats, like
hydrothermal ocean vents, have yielded at least 16 new families of invertebrates (Medley and
Gaudian. 1990).
The importance of the coastal zone to Indonesia should not be underestimated. Indonesia is
located within the largest archipelago in the world (the Malay Archipelago). Indonesia has over
17,000 islands of which about 6,000 are inhabited (KLH, 1992a). About 78% of the nation
comprises water and all 27 provinces have some coastal zone. About 75% of cities exceeding a
population of 100,000, and over 7,000 villages, exist along a coastline stretching 81,000 km.
In total, 60% of the population (112 million) lives in the coastal zone (BAPPENAS / CIDA,
1988).
Indonesia has been described as a "megadiversity" country. Although it occupies only 1.3% of
the world's land area, it possesses up to 17% of the total number of species in the world (KLH,
1992a). The highest diversity of shallow benthic species in the world occurs in the tropical Indo­
Pacific, followed by the tropical Pacific coast of America (Barnes and Hughes, 1982). Within the
Indo-Pacific, the highest diversity is centered on the Indo-Malayan region, of which Indonesia is
part.
1.1.3 MEASURES OF BIODIVERSITY
Traditionally ecologists have calculated indices of diversity, which combine the number of
species found in a sample with some measure of the evenness of their abundance. Using these
measures, diversity is greater with more species. Even with the same number of species, diversity
is greater if all the species have similar abundances. Some researchers believe that this attempt to
reduce the importance of rare species is wrong; however, it depends on the purpose. Sometimes
the use of species is not appropriate, and care must be taken that choice of taxa used in the
measure avoids subjectivity or domination by some groups. Any index, however, is only a single
value or estimate, and reflects only one community state (limited in time and space) (Medley and
Gaudian, 1990). Scientists are now developing statistical models as a replacement for these
historical measures. Monitoring requires these more complex models so that subtle changes can
be identified before damage occurs.
1.1.4 HISTORY OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY RELATED ISSUES IN INDoNESIA
Many significant dates were summarized by Soegiarto and Polunin (1982) on which much of the
following is based.
Concerns about the diversity of life in the Indonesian oceans was first recognized by the first
regulation on fisheries and marine fisheries issued by the Dutch Colonial Government in the
1920s (Table 1). The marine component of the regulations (ordinances) dealt with the destructive
fishing methods used and the location of fishing grounds in certain parts of Indonesia. These
regulations attempted to resolve conflicts between traditional and commercial fishing. At this
time the first scientific survey, the Snellius Expedition, was conducted. The Dutch Colonial
Government wanted to assess the marine potential for future exploitation.
The first significant jurisdictional event was the establishment of a 3-mile territorial sea in the
1930s. This then became the basis for marine legal considerations in Indonesia and was used
until the 1960s. This jurisdiction was revised to become a 12-mile territorial sea in the 1960s.
In 1983 a 200-mile Economic Exclusive Zone was established.
In the 1950s the Government of Indonesia encouraged the first studies of oceanography and the
first primary productivity measurements were made by the Galathea Expedition. This work was
57

Appendix 3
followed by the incorporation of the Institute of Oceanology in the Indonesian Institute of
Sciences (LIPI) in 1962. The institute's objective was to assess the oceanology of Indonesian
marine areas. As such, this included early work on marine biodiversity.
In the 1970s there were several important steps in marine conservation. The first marine reserves
were established in the 1970s by the Directorate General (00) of Nature Conservation (PPA),
Ministry of Agriculture. Indonesia. represented by the 00 of PPA, ratified the Convention on
the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Aora and Fauna (CITES) in 1978. This
decade also saw Indonesia's first National Symposium on Marine Conservation.
In the early 1980s, the first management plan for marine conservation was issued by the DG of
PPA. This was enabled by Act No. 4 1982 on Basic Management Provisions of the Environment.
The framework for the conservation of marine biodiversity was further developed by the
initiation of provincial university studies on the coastal zone, and the creation of a National
Strategy for Biodiversity Management in 1989 by the then State Ministry for Population and
Environment (KLH), now State Ministry for Environment (LH). Act No. 5 concerning the
Conservation of Living Resources and their Ecosystems was issued in 1990, and is the primary
basis for conservation activities.
The National Board for Development Planning (BAPPENAS) launched the Biodiversity Action
Plan for Indonesia in 1991. The Indonesian Biodiversity Country Study Standing Committee was
founded in October 23 of that year. LIPI, in collaboration with the Nature Conservancy (TNC),
conducted the National Biodiversity Database Workshop on November 19 to 21, 1991. Prior to
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or the Earth Summit,
Indonesia formulated its Country Study on Biological Diversity on May 7, 1992 which comprised
the official country report of Indonesia for the conference. Indonesia then signed the
International Agreement on Biodiversity and established the National Biodiversity Management
Programme (NBMP).
1.1.5 KNOWLEDGE OF MARINE RESOURCES IN INDoNESIA
The Marine Environment of Indonesia (Soegiarto and Polunin, 1982) included descriptions of
habitats, flora and fauna. This work included maps of habitats, as well as potential and existing
marine protected areas. Further description appears in Polunin (1983) which also defined details
of management measures, and of negative human impacts.
Indonesian Marine Fisheries Development and Strategy under Extended Maritime Jurisdiction
(Comitini and Hardjolukito, 1983) describes the development of Indonesia's marine fisheries.
This work documents early fisheries development in western Indonesia (the east coast of Sumatra
and the Riau Islands, and parts of East lava). The viable management options for fisheries
development in the EEZ of Indonesia are described in the document. This document also provides
maps and tables which comprise major strategies for fisheries development in the EEZ; fish
categories, popular species caught in each region and levels of production by region.
Marine Conservation Data Atlas (Salm and Halim, 1984) was produced at a scale of 1:6 million. It
includes much environmental data. in addition to a list of existing and proposed marine reserves
and conservation areas. This was an atlas for conservation planning. It was completed and
designed specifically to help identify priority sites for protection in and along the edge of
Indonesia's seas. The data atlas was the result of a continuing process of data collection over a
period of three years. Data for some maps, such as ocean currents, already existed much as they are
presented here. However, data on marine environments and marine species had to be compiled
principally from surveys, and references. This document is very valuable for management
purposes, and the 00 of PHP A uses it as the main source of information for all their management
documents.
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers (Salm and Clark. 1984)
included two Indonesian case studies (Bunaken and Kepulauan Seribu). The book was developed
from the Workshop on Managing Coastal and Marine Protected Areas, held in October 1982
during the World Congress on National Parks in BalL It was intended as a guide for the increasing
number of people who fmd themselves with mandates to plan either national systems of marine
protected areas or individual sites. Readers are presumed to have training in the field of natural
58

Appendix 3
resources. To facilitate its use as a sourcebook, the book was arranged in three parts. The fIrst
introduces protected areas as one of many tools for managing marine resources and outlines a
process for planning a regional or national system of protected areas. The second part considers
the specifIc principles and techniques for planning and managing protected areas in different
environments. The third part offers a number of tools and case studies to help protected area
planners and managers carry out their tasks. The book relies on a variety of sources, including
workshop papers, summary reports of workshop sessions prepared by session chairmen,
rapporteurs, and submitted records of workshop discussions.
Marine Resource Evaluation and Planning Study, Volume 1 (Strategic Review) (MREP Asian
Development Bank and Government of the Republic of Indonesia, 1992) outlines a strategic
approach to marine resource planning and development. Plans cover basic marine sciences, sea
communications, fisheries resources, minerals, oil and gas, conservation and tourism, marine
resources, and issues arising from development plans.
1.1.6 MARINE RESOURCE DATABASES IN INDoNESIA
There are several organizations which maintain databases of the marine resources of Indonesia.
Many of these can provide data which is important to marine biodiversity management. These
databases include:
Wetland Database.
The Asian Wetland Bureau in Bogor has developed and actively maintains an extremely
comprehensive, relational Foxpro database of wetland habitat, and its associated flora and fauna.
This database, now on its second major version, was developed over a two-year period. It is
jointly held by PHP A. It has a comprehensive manual in Indonesian and English. This database
has extracted most of the data from most published works on wetlands in Indonesia.
Importantly, this database includes a hierarchical system of habitat types. It also contains
valuable information on habitat condition, land uses and existing or expected environmental
impacts. This database allows for comprehensive reports which include published defmitions of
terms, and lists of relevant published references. Comprehensive taxonomic lists are included for
fIshes, seagrasses, mangroves and other groups. The best geographical coverage is of Sumatra,
whereas that of Irian Jaya is not very complete because of the limited survey data available.
This is a signifIcant database, limited in its application to marine biodiversity management
largely by its scope, "wetlands". Their defmition only includes marine habitats less than six
meters in depth. This is understandable given the interests and resources of the A WB. They have
shown interest in including a wider range of habitats, such as seagrass meadows, coral reefs etc.
Staff are also involved in surveys. Although the current version is more of a bibliographic
database than the geographic databases required for biodiversity management, they are already
adding some GIS facilities in the version held by PHPA.
National Marine Database.
The Marine Data Center of P30-UPI, Jakarta, maintains a database of fIsh and habitat records.
This was established as part of the ASEAN-Australia Cooperative Program in Marine Science. It is
a flat DBase ill database. In the future they hope to include GIS capabilities.
They have good quantities of data from surveys of coral reefs, but far less data from other habitats.
Through association with the Scientific Information and Documentation Center, UPI, it is
believed that the Marine Data Center and this database may play a key role in a future National
Biodiversity Database, and/or a National Marine Biodiversity Database.
Pulau Seribu.
UNESCO/ROTSEA maintain a database of fIeld surveys (coral reefs) and on the associated land use
on target islands. They plan to document changes over time (UPI, 1991).
MASS.
WWF maintains this database to integrate information on species distribution, abundance and
habitat requirements with data on protected areas, their location, altitude limits and habitat
content. and with habitat information gleaned from remote sensing. and vegetation mapping to
59

Appendix 3
determine what species can be expected at any locality for the purpose of conservation and
wildlife management at the national. provincial. and biounit levels (UPI. 1991).
Information Fisheries System (INFIS).
This system is coordinated by the Secretary DG of Fisheries, and data are compiled in the
Agricultural Data Center, Ministry of Agriculture. The collected data are from the Directorate of
Resources Management, the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and other agencies within DG
of Fisheries. This system is funded by ADB.
Hydro-Oceanographic Service of the Navy (DISHIDROS) held several surveys and collates all
hydrodynamic and geomorphologic data into mapping systems, including bathymetry. thematic
maps, marine geology. and other oceanographic and meteorological information.
1 . 2 LEGAL BASIS
1.2.1 LEGISLATION
Paragraph 3, Article 33 of the 1945 Constitution (UUD 45) states that the earth and waters and
natural richness contained therein are controlled by the State and used for the maximum welfare of
the people. This is the constitutional basis of marine biodiversity management. Marine
biodiversity management of Indonesia is primarily based on the following legislation (for full
list see Table 2):
1. Act No. 4 of 1982 on Basic Management Provisions of the Environment
2. Act No. 9 of 1985 on Fishery
3. Act No. 5 of 1990 on the Conservation of Living Resources and their Ecosystems
4. Act No. 9 of 1990 on Tourism
5. Act No. 24 of 1992 on Spatial Planning
6. Governmental Regulation No. 29 of 1986 concerning Environmental Impact Assessment
(AMDAL)
7. Governmental Regulation No. 15 of 1990 concerning Business Sectors in Fishery
8. Presidential Decree No. 43 of December 15, 1978 concerning the Ratification of CITES
9. Presidential Decree No. 32 of 1990 concerning Protection Areas
10. Presidential Decree No. 23 of 1991 concerning List of Fields of Business Closed to
Investment (Appendix I. No. 56: Business in utilization and exploitation of sponges which
is closed in relation to the Acts on Foreign Investment (PMA). National Investment (PMDN)
and non-PMA/PMDN)
11. Presidential Decree No. 48, October 19. 1991; ratification of RAMSAR Convention
12. Minister of Forestry Decree No. 687/Kpts-I1/1989, November 15, 1989. concerning
Utilization of Recreational Forests. National Parks, Hunting Parks and Marine Parks
13. Minister of Forestry Decree No. 688/Kpts-II/I989. concerning Provisions on Applications
of Permits for Recreational Forests, National Parks. Hunting Parks and Marine Parks.
14. Minister of Tourism, Post and Telecommunication Decree No. KM.97/HK/l03/-MPPT/87
concerning Provisions on Marine Tourism Business
15. Minister of Tourism, Post and Telecommunication Decree No. Kep/17/U/II/88 concerning
Implementation of Provisions on Marine Tourism Business
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Appendix 3
16. Circular of the Minister of Development Control and Environment No. 408/­
MNPPLH/4/1979, April 30, 1979 concerning Prohibition on Taking Coral which May
Damage the Marine Environment (Ecosystems) (addressed to the Head of the Provincial
Fisheries Service throughout Indonesia)
17. Circular of the Director General of Fisheries No. E.I/5/5/11/1979, May 28, 1979 concerning
Prohibition on Taking Coral which may Damage the Marine Environment (Ecosystems)
(addressed to the Head of the Provincial Fisheries Service throughout Indonesia).
1.2.2 ENFoRCEMENT
Indonesia has sufficient national legislation to manage marine biodiversity, however, eXlstmg
regulations have usually not been implemented. This is often because the regulations were too
complex, or their implementation provisions have been too difficult to put into practice.
Implementation provisions must be tailored regionally as utilization patterns are closely related
to each coastal community's culture; this is true even for the business sector.
Conservation and management regulations are usually enforced by the Penyidikan Pegawai Negeri
Sipil (Government Officer Authority in Investigation) as described in Act No. 9 1985 concerning
Fisheries (chapter 31 article 2) and Act No. 5 1990 concerning Conservation of Natural Resources
and their Ecosystems (Chapter 39 article 1 and 2). These were taken from, and supported by, Act
No. 8 1981 concerning government officers authority to receive reports, interrogate,
investigate, and confiscate all the physical evidence of any violations. This often, however, fails
in the field due to the lack of implementation provisions from each ministry.
Therefore, the requirement to manage and conserve marine biodiversity is the creation of simple
and achievable implementation provisions for existing marine-related regulations, whether for
national or regional levels. The regional government should follow up by issuing regional
implementation provisions to tailor the national provisions to local potential and constraints.
1.2.3 CONRlCfING LEGISLATION
The marine jurisdictional policies of Indonesia are complex because of the commitment to the
Archipelago Concepts (Wawasan Nusantara). These concepts are very useful for political and
security purposes, but not for marine resource conservation and management., because they do not
allow regional authorities to exercise control in managing the areas adjacent to their own
territories. Without regional participation in regional conservation, the management of marine
biodiversity will be difficult due to regional differences and the lack of regional support.
Indonesia's coastal zone management falls under the authority of the Navy, DG of Fisheries
(Ministry of Agriculture), DG of PHPA (Ministry of Forestry) and local government (regency
level). Regulations controlling the use of natural resources often do not suit local customs and
traditions well. Conflicting regulations often occur because of poor coordination between central
regulations (for national purposes) and local regulations (matched to local potentials and
constraints), such as the case of Pangumbahan green turtle nesting beach. This conflict involved
DO of PHPA, DG of Fisheries, Regional Fisheries Service, and the Regional Government Despite
national turtle conservation policy the regional government allowed nesting beach concessions
to a private company for the large scale commercial harvest of green turtle eggs.
There is significant conflict between Act No. 9 1985 and Act No. 5 1990 as they now stand. Act
No. 9 was intended to deal with the utilization of marine resources, and Act No. 5 with their
conservation, though Act No. 9 also includes a chapter on the conservation of species and
localities (Chapter 8 Article 1). It is Chapter 1 Article 2 of this Act No. 9 which conflicts with
Act No. 5. In this chapter it states that fish resources are defmed as all "marine biota" which
includes: marine turtles, whales, dugong and dolphin, as well as some species of mollusks like
cephalopods. As such, it describes protected species as commercial resources. In fact, a recent
campaign poster illustrating the economically valuable fish resources of Indonesia includes these
same protected species. This conflict was discussed at a workshop to develop the National
Strategy for Marine Turtle Conservation and Management, held in Jakarta, 23 July, 1991. It is
likely that Act No. 9 will have to be amended in its description of commercial biota. Act No. 5
clearly needs specific provisions for implementation purposes, particularly for sectoral and
61

Appendix 3
implementing agencies. It must include a bureaucratic flowchart for implementing the regulations
which clearly states the responsibilities of various agencies.
There are other conflicts in legislation including coral reefs. The use of coral for building
purposes is allowed under legislation from the Ministry of Industry. This does not limit the use of
coral to dead coral even though corals are protected under international agreements such as CITES.
1.2.4 CONFllCf RESOLUTION
LH has a responsibility for conflict resolution, particularly in the implementation of
conservation and the management of natural resource regulations. In marine affairs, however,
there are many obstacles to this process because of the lack of administrative mechanisms
regulating marine resource utilization. As well, there is a national commitment to the
Archipelagic 'Principle which emphasizes national government control. LH has already chaired
national strategy forums and facilitated a coordinated approach to meet the needs of each sectoral
agency, as well as national goals of conservation and management of marine resources.
LH is working to resolve conflicts between coastal village development and the harvest of
mangrove forests. LH has been involved in developing the National Strategy of Coastal Villages
Development by defining the administrative mechanisms to generate income. In this, they
employed a pilot project. The chosen locality for the case study was Cilacap (southern coast of
Central Java). The pilot project was carried out in collaboration with an NGO, named Yayasan
Dian Desa.
In a similar way LH has helped to develop the National Strategy for Marine Turtle Conservation
and Management. The LH Technical Team picked Pangumbahan (southern coast of West Java) as a
case study. LH involved the Secretary of Development Control and Operation (Sesdalopbang) as
their role could directly touch the local government, whether at central, provincial or regional
levels. The conflict situation arose because of the development of prawn farming near turtle
nesting beaches. These developments pose a threat to both the turtles themselves as well as the
commercial turtle egg harvests.
Currently LH is involved in solving conflicts involved in the conservation and management of
coral reefs. The National Strategy of Coral Reef Ecosystems Conservation and Management has
two case studies: Kepulauan Seribu (North Jakarta) and Bunaken (North Sulawesi). Resolving
problems surrounding coral reefs is seen as the first step in a program entitled Sustainable Marine
Environment Program (Program Laul Lestari). This integrated program is comprised of several
action plans and national strategies which have been formulated by the LH Technical Team with
other related institutions. Conflicts which came to light because of the National Strategy for
Coral Reef Management include the conflict between the DKI Jakarta government and the Dirjen
PHPA (Directorate General of Forest and Nature Conservation) over zoning problems.
To accomplish its role, LH must have a strong technical team to address these conflicts. LH does
not represent a single agency; it must coordinate an integrated approach involving
representatives from all levels and sectors of government. Pilot projects coordinated by LH,
corresponding to the current issues, must be encouraged by interministerial and interagency
commitment. Without this support the implementation and follow-up actions of these pilot
project will fail.
1 .3 METHODS OF FUNDING MARINE BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
There are no existing plans to fund the conservation of marine biodiversity except as ongoing measures
to conserve marine habitats or to conserve and protect certain identified species. The concept of
marketing biodiversity through arrangements with private pharmaceutical companies, as Costa Rica has
done, should be explored. There are numerous suggestions in the literature as to how marine biodiversity
management could be funded, for example McNeely (1989) suggests:
1.3.1 NATIONAL AND LocAL LEvEL
Charge entry for parks (either individuals or tourist operators)
Charge for ecological services (such as beach protection by reef)
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Appendix 3
Collect special taxes (such as on trade of wildlife products)
Build funding linkages with development projects (capture funds from development for
conservation)
Return profits from exploitation of biological resources (national rights to share of profits
from products of marine biodiversity)
Build conditionality into concession agreements (require support for conservation programs
from developer)
Seek support from the private sector (sponsor)
Establish foundations for conservation (for voluntary tax-free donations, including overseas)
Collect interest from investments made by a protected area (use adjacent land to raise money
and buffer development effects)
1.3.2 INrERNA TIONAL LEvEL
Use international conventions to provide fmancial support (e.g., Earth Summit)
Seek direct support from international conservation organizations
"swap debt for nature" (debt written off in exchange for local investment in conservation)
Use restricted currency holdings (if international companies are required to spend a certain
amount of money in Indonesia, spend some on conservation)
Note that nearly all of the proposed methods assume that financial support will come from
overseas, and that it will be invested because overseas interests see the resource -biodiversity or
marine habitats - as valuable, that is worth-seeing and worth-saving. This means that once areas
are degraded there may be less support to maintain or rehabilitate them. Therefore, management
must proceed before significant damage is apparent.
2 • CURRENT MANAGEMENT CONDITIONS AND ISSUES
2.1 COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND PARTICIPATION
Biological diversity has become widely recognized as a critical conservation issue only in the past two
decades. Large scale habitat destruction and over exploitation has caused a high rate of species
extinctions. Much international concern has been focused on issues of rainforest conservation. Both
terrestrial and marine environments, however, are being threatened, but there are major differences in the
nature of the threats and in their effects (Thorne-Miller and Catena, 1991). The relatively constant ocean
environment has allowed the evolution of incredible biological diversity which is very susceptible to
the environmental disturbances introduced by man.
Marine conservation in general has only become an issue of global concern within the last 20 years
(WRI/lUCN/UNEP, 1992). There are three main reasons. Firstly, people are terrestrial creatures and do
not observe damage to the marine environment as they would on the land. Secondly, there is relatively
little tradition of managing marine areas for conservation, unlike the well-established traditions of
terrestrial conservation. Thirdly, most seas and oceans lie outside the jurisdiction of states, or their
territorial waters. The oceans are considered a common resource, subject to competitive exploitation.
Only comparatively recently have international conventions and agreements begun to impose some
legal control over earth's vast ocean areas.
The use of marine biodiversity has a great potential to create conflicts of interest among different
agencies, or between the community and various agencies or industry sectors. Potential conflict of
interest can only be minimized through a coordinated approach to management between related sectors
and the community. For this to take place there must be an increased sense of responsibility for,
understanding of, and control of marine biological resources. Without this relationship there can be
little incentive to undertake activities in a sustainable manner or to fully evaluate the benefits of marine
conservation areas.
With an integrated management approach there is a need to have extension programs which increase
public participation and cooperation. The public must be informed of their rights and responsibilities.
Through these programs we can increase local community participation in activities to monitor and
manage the use of marine resources by people from outside the area. Public involvement and
participation can involve cooperation with NGOs, which can act as mediators between decision makers
and the local community, or other users of the resource.
63

Appendix 3
As government's partners, NOOs can also play some roles in conununity training, developing income
resource alternatives for the conununity, and by providing information to the government on situations
and incidents where the marine biodiversity is threatened or degraded.
The availability of marine biodiversity information is limited and it is difficult to access. Consequently,
knowledge and awareness in the conununity of marine environmental issues is low. Most of the
available information is too complex for the general public to understand, and this includes many
decision makers. Much important information is not available in Indonesian or is written in a style
useful only to scientists.
Many people's lives are dependent on the marine biodiversity. There are many ways to use marine
biodiversity, some of which are destructive to habitats, and to the flora and fauna. These destructive
practices include bombing or blast fishing, and the use of poisons. The wide-spread use of these
practices demonstrates an acute lack of understanding of marine conservation and of the sustainable use
of resources on the part of many coastal communities. Some poorer communities now have few
alternatives; they must exploit their resources harder and harder just to subsist. Others use these practices
to extract the maximum short-term revenue from marine biodiversity.
Apart from those already discussed, there are many private entrepreneurs involved in the use of marine
biodiversity such as marine tourism, brackish water culture, and the development of settlement areas.
These people sometimes disregard marine biodiversity conservation practices. The government's
control and law enforcement is still weak and this has encouraged these activities to proceed without fuB
regard for the consequences. As a result, degradation of marine biodiversity continues.
2 .2 INSTITUTIONAL ROLES IN MARINE BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
Marine resource-related activities have been conducted by several sectoral authorities in Indonesia since
the 1960s. Various organizations maintain institutions which have different and complementary roles in
marine biodiversity management. While some are mainly concerned with research, others are involved
with mapping, support services, management, training, coordination, or planning. Several have
multiple roles and an attempt has been made to classify them only by their major contribution to marine
biodiversity management.
These agencies initiated most of their activities for their own management purposes. There are several
existing marine "research" agencies such as The Hydro-Oceanographic Service of the Navy
(DISIDDROS), the National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping (BAKOSURTANAL), The
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Research Institute for Marine Fisheries or RIMF (Balai
Penelitian Perikanan £aut), Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT) and six
universities which already have marine science programs funded by Asian Development Bank (ADB).
Their responsibilities and activities were summarized by MREP (1992) as follows:
2.2.1 REsEARCH
LIPI is the scientific authority of all related activities in Indonesia. It comprises research and
development centers of biology, oceanology, limnology, and the scientific information center.
Research and Development Center for Oceanology (RDCO or P30) has organized
and conducted oceanological research activities since 1962. Its mandate is to carry out research
and development, and to provide a scientific and technological capability in the field of
oceanology. This is one of the most active marine research institutions in Indonesia. The P30
center has an important role in marine biodiversity research for management because it completes
quantitative surveys of habitats, flora and fauna; and identifies and investigates critical
ecosystem processes. It also maintains reference coBections and taxonomic facilities (texts,
microscopes etc.); computer databases; sampling equipment; trained marine biologists and
taxonomists etc.
Marine Data Center Was established by the RDCO. It maintains databases for the RDCO, It is
expected to play an important role in maintaining marine biodiversity inventories and databases
in the future.
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Appendix 3
The Center for Scientific Documentation and Information of LIPI maintains a
database of published material with relevance to biodiversity and is forecasted to be involved in
the design of a future biodiversity database.
Research Institutions for Marine Fisheries (RIMF) falls under the Central Research
Institute for Fisheries, Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (Ministry of
Agriculture). As such it does not have a direct responsibility to the Directorate General (DG) of
Fisheries, but has a close working relationship. This agency conducts research on marine
fisheries and post-harvesting technology. The research covers the disciplines of fisheries
biology, marine ecology, fisheries technology and socio-economics and marketing. The
research stations at Semarang and Ambon conduct research on demersal and small pelagic fish,
and oceanic fisheries respectively. Spot surveys are carried out infrequently outside Java.
There have been many researches on, and surveys assessing, marine resources in Indonesia for at
least the last two decades. Some agencies collect similar information but for different purposes.
The RIMF might collect species inventories for fisheries resource assessment purposes rather
than to examine the general state of the marine environment; while the RDCO UPI might collect
information for general scientific purposes without emphasis on commercial species. With such a
vast marine environment to survey, these inventories should be coordinated and integrated if a
national marine biodiversity database for management purposes is to be achieved. Policies
governing research should support marine research and make research permit arrangements
simpler. The research activities of some agencies were never intended for the purposes of
managing marine conservation areas, therefore other agencies should assist in this role.
Biodiversity work requires the collection and identification of species of marine flora and fauna
by taxonomists. This is currently done by RDCO UPI, RIMF and certain universities. There is
some overlap on the type of information collected and the localities visited, but little attempt at
coordination or compatible data formats. The taxonomists currently work in scientific fields not
usually associated with management. Indonesia still lacks sufficient numbers of taxonomists and
parataxonomists due to the low economic incentives in these careers. Taxonomists trained in
universities usually continue to work at universities. Some get formal training overseas. Some
have broad-based training, but most specialize. Many will cease to become active in their field
and become administrators. The need for trained marine taxonomists and para taxonomists is
urgent if Indonesia's flora and fauna is to be identified before much of it is lost.
2.2.2 MAPPING
DISHIDROS acts as the national authority for the publication of nautical charts and
navigational publications. It is the national focal point for all operational hydrographic and
oceanographic matters and represents Indonesia in relevant international forums. This agency
will play an important role, since marine biodiversity management involves marine resources
mapping.
BAKOSURTANAL is a non-ministerial Agency whose main responsibility is the national
coordination of resource inventory surveys and mapping. The agency has a division for marine
mapping, whose tasks are to develop and evaluate the results of marine survey and tidal
monitoring. There is also a division for the inventory and evaluation of marine resources. The
agency's overall activities are supported by a Geographic Information System (GIS) Center and a
Training Center.
2.2.3 SUPPORT SERVICES
BPPT. Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology is a non-departmental
organization reporting directly to the President. Its mandate concerns the assessment and
application of technology in term of policy, coordination and services. Particularly relevant to
marine resources development is BPPTs ownership of three survey vessels, Baruna Jaya ships,
which have been operational since 1990. One of these vessels is primarily designated for
oceanographic work, a second for hydro graphic surveys, while the third is designated for general
use, but is used mainly by a Committee for Ocean Technology, chaired by BPPTs Deputy
Chairman for Natural Resources. At present BPPT does not have the capacity to store the data
collected in an orderly fashion, but this problem is recognized and is being addressed.
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Appendix 3
2.2.4 MANAGEMENr
PHPA. The Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation. or Directorate of
National Park and Recreational Forests is charged with the management of marine conservation
areas. TIlls organization often utilizes the role of foreign consultants or their own staff to conduct
studies or surveys. In their attempts to gather this information. they should be assisted by
research agencies with extensive field staff and facilities.
2.2.5 TiwNING
Universities. Those which already have marine science programs funded by Asian
Development Bank (ADB) are: Pattimura University, Ambon; Sam Ratulangi University,
Manado; Hasanuddin University, Ujung Pandang; Diponegoro University, Semarang; IPB,
Bogor; and Riau University, Pekanbaru. The ADB project has been designed to strengthen marine
science education in Indonesia to meet future human resource needs.
MREP is merely an umbrella program for regional implementation. and the main objectives are
strengthening and developing the regional institutions in marine resource evaluation. MREP is
an ADB-funded follow-up to the collaboration project between BAPPENAS and the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA) for the Action Plan for Sustainable Development of
Indonesia's Marine and Coastal Resource on 1988, which focused on institutional development at
a regional level.
2.2.6 COORDINATION
LH. The Ministry for the Environment plays a central role in developing environmental policy
and coordinating implementing agencies. This ministry will play an important role in the
development of a national marine biodiversity strategy.
DEPDAGRI (The Ministry of Home Affairs). This mmlstry assists in the coordination
and control of research by dealing with permit arrangements and approvals for research sites.
BAIS ABRI. The Army Intelligence and Strategic Agency is involved with security
arrangements.
Though the scientific authority is held by LIPI, research arrangements can require approval of
several other bodies and ministries. Research arrangements can be complicated. especially for
some areas, because of concerns about socio-economic. cultural, political and security matters.
2.2.7
BAPPENAS. The National Development Planning Board plans a key role in planning including
permit arrangements and locality approvals. They coordinate the Marine Resource Evaluation and
Planning Study (MREP), which is probably the only existing plan for assessing and evaluating
marine resources which involves many governmental agencies. The project is funded by the
Asian Development Bank and was approved in June 1992.
2.3 CONSERVATION OF MARINE AREAS
Conservation of marine areas is undertaken through the use of marine reserves (Marine
Naturerraman Laur and Marine Game Reserves/Suaka Margasatwa Laur) and nature preservation
areas (National Marine Parks(Jaman Nasional Laur and Marine Parks(Jaman Wisata Laur). The
first marine reserves were established in the 1970s by the Directorate General (DG) of Nature
Conservation (PP A), Ministry of Agriculture.
Many of the non-terrestrial habitats which have very high biodiversity and productivity are
coastal, that is near the shore. These habitats, such as mangroves and fringing coral reefs, are
very susceptible to uncontrolled coastal development or environmental disturbance.
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Appendix 3
Complete inventories have not been completed for existing marine conservation areas and in
many cases our knowledge of the flora and fauna of these areas is poor. With the lack of detailed
knowledge of marine resources, it will be difficult to know where to establish the planned marine
conservation areas so that they can most effectively protect valuable habitats and biodiversity.
Conflict of use within marine conservation areas can occur when there is not sufficient
coordination between the management authority and the regional governments involved.
Establishment of these areas is improved if an integrated approach is used. Regional
governments are responsible for enhancing social welfare through the management of natural
resources. Regional governments, therefore, should initiate the establishment of conservation
areas by recommending them to PHPA.
LH should undertake the coordination necessary for an integrated approach to marine
conservation areas, not only between PHPA and regional governments, but also between other
relevant agencies such as : BAPPENAS, DG of Sea Communications, DISHIDR OS,
BAKOSURT ANAL, P30-UPI, DG of Fisheries, DG of Tourism, local universities and NGOs.
2.4 EXISTING AND PROPOSED MARINE CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
2.4.1 NATIONAL STRATEGY AND ACTION PuN FOR COASTAL VlUAGES DEVELOPMENT
The strategy objectives are to generally improve the socioeconomic welfare of coastal villages
nationwide. Priority areas are chosen. and the most critical areas are established as pilot projects.
Several options have already been recommended, including: private business sector involvement
in the support of village infrastructure (such as fishing), introduction of applied technologies
(particularly for post-harvesting) which fit with local customs and government policy,
improvement of village councils and institutions in adopting external innovations, and the
establishment of mechanisms for interpersonal or social groups' creative interactions.
The coastal village development strategy emphasizes improvements in: village post-harvesting
processes, sustainable fishing techniques, bank credit facilities, fish market systems, community
awareness and participation, and existing social infrastructure.
The strategy proposes pilot projects which focus on mariculture for generating income, and
women's roles in this effort. Yayasan Dian Desa. an NGO in Central Java undertook a village
development in Cilacap, Central Java. They were involved with: providing breeding stocks for
prawn farming, involving women in waste product recycling systems, and training extension
officers. This project was commenced on 1989, and finished 1991.
The Cilacap pilot project is being replicated by the Environmental Study Center (PSL) of
University of Hasanuddin (UNHAS) in Ujung Pandang in collaboration with LH. This further work
is concentrating on several mangrove conversion areas on South Sulawesi. This project is funded
by the World Bank through a soft loan.
2.4.2 NATIONAL CONTINGENCY PuN
This strategy is to provide guidelines for oil-spill preparedness to prevent marine pollution. The
coordinative working group involves: DG of Sea Communication, BAPEDAL, DISHIDROS of the
navy, DG of Fisheries, PHPA, and DG of Regional Government (Ministry of Home Affairs).
Technical reports have been prepared which includes field assessments and previous case
histories.
The outcome of this strategy will be a Presidential Degree on Oil Spill Pollution Preparedness.
This Decree will mutually support a proposed Presidential Decree of Seawater Quality Standards.
Pilot projects are situated on the Straits of Malacca and Makassar which have the busiest sea
traffic in Indonesia and some of the heaviest in South East Asia.
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Appendix 3
2.4.3 NATIONAL STRATEGY AND AcnON PLAN OF MARINE TuRTI..E CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENI'
This strategy originated from a short discussion held between LH, DO of PHP A and EMDI.
Because Indonesia ratified the Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild
Flora and Fauna (CITES) in 1979, there was considerable international pressure for marine turtle
conservation and management in Indonesia. It was for this reason that the strategy was
formulated. The DO of PHPA was directly involved in the CITES ratification and they are the
management authority for species conservation in Indonesia. They undertook the technical
material preparation along with Research and Development Center for Biology, LIPI. LH
supported by coordinating the meetings and by formulating an integrated strategy and action
plan.
The main outcome of the strategy was the recommendation to issue a Ministry of Forestry Decree
to protect the remaining unprotected species of marine turtles, such as hawks bill (Erell7Wcheiys
imbricala), flatback (Nalalor depressus) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Habitats critical to
these species were designated as priority localities in several parts of Indonesia. The strategy
case study was the Pangumbahan green turtle nesting beach (southern coast of Java) where
conflict existed between private companies, local communities, and local and central
governments.
A Ministry of Forestry Decree was issued on 8 September. 1992, (No. 882/Kpts-II/92) to fully
protect hawksbill and flatback turtles. The green turtles were allowed to be sustainably harvested,
particularly for traditional ceremony purposes such as in Bali. The protection of the nesting
habitats is still a difficult problem since the price paid for egg harvesting concessions
contributes a considerable portion of the real regional income (Pendapatan Asli Daerah. PAD) in
regions such as Berau (East Kalimantan), Sambas-Palloh (West Kalimantan) etc. The protection
of feeding grounds is planned as part of the marine conservation areas program of DO of PHPA.
In terms of the diversity of marine living organisms, this strategy is really important, as it
stimulates other marine-related issues, particularly conservation. The conservation of sea turtles
could attract international funding which can conserve habitats critical to many marine species.
2.4.4 NATIONAL STRATEGY AND AcnON PLAN FOR CORAL REEF EcOSYSTEM CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT
This strategy was addressed through an ecosystem protection approach, which has considerable
acceptance in Indonesia. Conflicts occurred since the exploitation of coral reefs by fishing,
. marine tourism, coral and sand mining, and ornamental fish harvesting is very lucrative, and not
always mutually compatible. Destructive fishing and utilization techniques stimulated LH to
organize a coordination meeting involving all the marine related agencies, including universities
and NODs. The strategy was developed by a technical team drawn from these groups.
2.4.5 PROPOSED NATIONAL STRATEGY AND AcnON PLAN FOR MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
This strategy (currently still a draft) concerns the use, rehabilitation, community awareness and
participation, protection and conservation, research and development, and national policy for
mangrove habitats.
2.4.6 PROPOSED NATIONAL STRATEGY AND AcnON PLAN FOR SEAGRASS EcOSYSTEM
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
This strategy (currently still a draft) describes the value of sea grass habitats and describes a
national policy for their conservation and sustainable use.
2.4.7 PROPOSED NATIONAL STRATEGY AND AcnON PLAN FOR MARINE TOURISM
This strategy seeks to define the objectives, needs, roles, and impacts of marine tourism. It
attempts to defme the balance between conservation, and social and economic needs.
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Appendix 3
2.5 RELATIONSIDP BETWEEN MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
2.5.1 NATIONAL STRAlEGY ON BrODIVERSITY MANAGEMENr
Although it was never intended to exclude marine, estuarine or freshwater habitats, the existing
national biodiversity management plan focuses on terrestrial habitats. The draft of the National
Strategy on Biodiversity Management is a comprehensive plan which covers the human and
environmental problems inherent in meeting the challenge of managing Indonesia's wealth of
biodiversity, particularly in its forests.
2.5.2 JOINT TERRESTRIAL AND MARINE APPROACHES
Although it is well recognized that there are unique problems in managing develop ment in
terrestrial environments compared to marine environments, there are also many similarities. It is
of great importance for planning purposes that a close link be maintained between agencies and
individuals concerned with terrestrial and marine planning. In this way the potential impact of
onshore developments on marine ecosystems can be considered and the system viewed as a
integrated whole.
When new terrestrial protected areas are chosen, consideration should be given to protecting
adjacent complementary marine areas, or vice versa, allowing for integrated resource
management. In this way marine protected areas can be placed where the terrestrial catchment is
already controlled, giving it better security from damage through siltation. Likewise forested
catchment areas adjacent to valuable marine habitats can be protected. This enhances the value
and security of both areas. The potential for some types of tourism is greatly enhanced when
visitors can experience both adjacent terrestrial and marine habitats in an undisturbed state. This
allows for the creation of protected landscapes which can include coral reefs and other marine
features.
2.5.3 FRESHWAlER SYSlEMS
The management of flora and fauna in freshwater habitats is not covered under the present
proposed strategy on marine biodiversity. Either there should be a separate strategy developed for
lotic and lentic freshwater habitats, or they should be accommodated in the national (terrestrial)
biodiversity management plan.
2 • 6 USES AND VALUES Or MARINE BIODIVERSITY
2.6.1 Use of Marine Biodiversity
Although natural resources are renewable, they are not unlimited -they have a carrying capacity.
Marine biodiversity is also a natural resource. Its wise use will ensure its is not degraded as
species become extinct.
2.6.1.1 Direct Uses
a. Traditional Uses
This is the use by local coastal communities. The term traditional implies that this use
has continued for many years and has thus far proven to be sustainable. This non­
commercial use provides sustenance for coastal communities, but over-demand caused
by the pressures of rapidly increasing populations threatens the resource
Currently, most marine biological resources are taken from the wild stock rather than
from culture. Even cultivation often relies on brood stock or young animals taken from
the wild. This trend threatens wild populations, especially when their natural habitat is
also destroyed. At present in Indonesia there are 7,000 villages fully dependent on
marine resources and the demands are increasing. Only rational management will
prevent the destruction of wild stocks and the corresponding loss of marine
biodiversity.
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Appendix 3
b. Production Uses
The objective of management of the marine biological resources of Indonesia is to
produce the maximum sustainable benefits for the nation. Management must be rational
and integrated in order to preserve the marine resources and habitats for the future.
The fIShing industry is a major user of marine biological resources. Its' activities must
be carefully managed. yet our understanding of how to accomplish this is still poor, as
it is in many tropical countries. Fishing, nevertheless, offers great hope for the future,
as there is evidence that many existing fisheries can be expanded and new ones
developed. Managers must, however, control development as already there are areas
which appear over-fished, and in some fisheries the incidental catches of endangered
species threaten the marine biodiversity.
c. Industry Uses
The marine environment is the habitat for many species of mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, fishes, algae, invertebrates and micro-organisms. This species diversity
shows the richness of marine resources in Indonesian waters. Many industries rely on
these resources for their raw materials. For example the tile industry uses clam shells
(Tridacna sp.), button and souvenir industries use trochus shells (Trochus sp.) or laca
(Turbo sp.). Turtle carapaces are also used for souvenirs. Pharmaceutical industries also
use bioactive substances from marine organisms such as shark oils.
Marine fauna, particularly sedentary types, often produce chemicals of great scientific
and medical interest, which may yield great commercial benefits. These organisms often
communicate with each other using these powerful agents. In some habitats, such as a
coral reef, where there is great competition for living space, these animals and plants
use toxic chemicals to gain and defend territory. Many laboratories are currently testing
such chemicals for their ability to kill or inhibit disease organisms and pests.
If these activities are not well monitored, the wild stock will be increasingly harvested
without any effort to produce cultured products. This could endanger wild stocks,
decrease production and may ultimately lead to changes in the marine community or
ex tinc tions.
2.6.1.2 Indirect Uses
a. Tourism Use
One of the ways to use marine biodiversity indirectly is through tourism. This activity
uses the beauty of the biota through such activities as snorkeling and fishing on coral
reefs, sunbathing on beaches, and swimming and surfmg. Tourist activities can also be
focused on traditional practices such as the spectacle of shark hunting or boat races.
Marine tourism holds much promise for Indonesia but if not managed many threaten the
very beauty and diversity on which it relies. For example, hotel development can
damage mangrove and seagrass habitats through physical damage or eutrophication or
siltation. Hotels have needs such as for fresh water and electricity, and they produce
sewage and garbage. They usually require landscaping and habitat alterations. These
developments usually provide beaches, and this may mean that large quantities of sand
are brought in and the existing habitat such as mangroves removed. They often provide
scuba diving but without management boat anchors and uneducated divers may damage
the coral.
Indonesia possesses a diverse flora and fauna which is a valuable tourism resource.
Tourism can provide great employment opportunities, encourage regional development,
and increase national income which can improve the welfare of Indonesian people.
There is a great need for the development of marine tourism to be guided by a sound
national policy, one which maintains the marine biodiversity and natural beauty on
which the industry relies. The development of tourism should encourage the economy
70

2.6.2
Appendix 3
and socio-cultural development and maintain the sustainability and quality of the
environment while maintaining its own viability.
It is recognized that tourism has significant value to coastal commurulles especially
those with unique attractions. Since tourism affects the general public, it should be
developed and controlled in an integrated manner by government, private sector and
community interests. Public participation in the broadest sense is required to achieve
the income equality and business opportunities that marine tourism promises. Tourist
developments in coastal areas should proceed carefully because of the possible serious
impacts on the environment, marine biota and the local culture.
As marine tourism increases, so do the physical and ecological pressures leading to
environmental degradation. All natural resources, including marine biodiversity must
be wisely managed -there must be a balance between protection and preservation, and
use.
In general, tourism is managed by the regional and provincial offices of tourism within
the Post and Telecommunications of each province (in line with government regulation
No. 24, 1979). In order to minimize impacts of tourism development on the marine
habitats and biota, these offices should be provided with operational guidelines before
development occurs.
b. Conservation Use
One of the objectives of marine conservation areas is to preserve the marine
biodiversity. When an area has a rich biodiversity but also the potential for multiple­
use, it must be carefully managed through a" zoning system. This system includes a core
area, a buffer area and areas for utilization. Careful management can ensure that the
natural resources are protected and preserved without denying local communities access
to some of the marine resources for their sustainable use.
Some of the specific objectives for marine conservation areas are:
to increase the role and function of marine areas for management and utilization;
to maintain and preserve marine habitats as shelter, nursery grounds, spawning
grounds and for the regeneration of marine biota;
to preserve genetic resources through the maintenance of ecosystems;
to use fISh stocks and other marine resources to develop fisheries in coastal areas;
to protect marine ecosystems which possess valuable and characteristic species,
and the unique species existing in each region; and
to preserve the use of species and ecosystems through management.
To preserve marine biodiversity, an integrated management strategy among related
institutions, both at the national and regional levels, is needed. In this way the use of
marine resources can be monitored and managed to maintain their value.
VALUE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY
In addition to the ways in which it can be used, marine biodiversity has other values described
below.
2.6.2.1 Ecological Value
These are the invaluable services perfonned by natural systems such as the control of
erosion, the weather, the carbon cycle etc. Coral reefs and mangrove forests control
beach erosion and reduce stonn damage. The use of coral for construction purposes
poses a real erosion threat to Indonesian shorelines, particularly at a time when
sea-levels are expected to rise and the number and severity of tropical storms to increase
because of greenhouse effects. Seagrass habitats contribute nutrients to the marine
ecosystem as well as functioning as a nursery ground for various marine biota.
71

Appendix 3
2.6.2.2 Conservation Value
The conservation of marine biodiversity is valuable because it preserves options for
future generations. Through wise conservation species of plants and animals can be
preserved which may have important ecological, aesthetic or economic values in the
future. By preserving a diverse flora and fauna we ensure that the biota will survive future
climatic changes, disasters and diseases, thus ensuring human survival.
2.6.2.3 Aesthetic Value
Marine biodiversity has great aesthetic value. The beauty and completeness of an
ecosystem cannot be separated. The species and biological processes that make up an
ecosystem have aesthetic value in their own sense.
This aesthetic value can be considered priceless. Nothing can replace lost species.
Marine tourism trades on the very high value placed on the aesthetic value which
tourists place on marine ecosystems. When high-profile species, such as turtles, are
lost from an area, then tourism dependent on them may cease.
2.6.2.4 Economic Value
One of the most obvious values of marine biodiversity is economic. Activities
associated with the marine environment have a great capacity to create employment.
These include fishing (traditional and commercial), marine culture, mining,
transportation and tourism. Marine environments provide food for communities
(replacing food bought elsewhere) and provide a diversity of animals and plants for
marine culture development. Certain marine species are used to produce bioactive
substances which are important drugs (Appendix 4)
Marine activities promise great economic returns for Indonesians and Indonesia,
however, this potential has not yet been fully realized.
2.6.2.5 Socio-cultural Value
Biological diversity may also include cultural diversity. As users of natural resources,
humans have a rich diversity of traditions concerning their use of the marine habitat and
its resources. If the diversity of marine fauna declines, so does the ways in which man
can interact with nature.
The socio-cultural traditions of different groups and regions must be preserved. This will
only be possible if the flora and fauna, and ecological processes upon which they are
based are also preserved. Socio-cultural diversity helps guarantee the survival of man by
allowing different groups to use different resources in different ways or at different
times, thus ensuring that future natural disasters or famine will spare some groups.
2 • 7 INLAND DEVELOPMENT
Considerable damage to marine habitats can occur as a result of uncontrolled inland development.
Removal of forests from catchment areas may allow for losses of valuable top soil which then causes
siltation of mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs. Any release of materials, from human effluent to
agricultural chemicals, can do profound damage to marine environments.
Development can cause the direct destruction of marine habitats such as mangroves, or activities such as
forest exploitation, intensive agriculture or river basin developments may cause indirect damage through
siltation and modified drainage patterns.
Developments in marine areas, such as tourist resorts. harbours, and mariculture, have the potential to
destroy marine ecosystems. Island ecosystems are particularly susceptible. Regional spatial planning is
essential to manage and regulate activities which degrade the natural environment and reduce
biodiversity.
72

Appendix 3
The licensing process for the development of tourist resorts is at the regional Public Works office. The
business control. however. is under the regional Tourism office and the Directorate of Tourism.
Considerable coordination is required to ensure that developers comply with plans. restrictions and
regulations applied to development areas. Approval should be obtained before the development begins
as the first phases often entail considerable destruction of marine habitats which are difficult to
rehabilitate.
2 • 8 MARINE DEVELOPMENT
Impacts on marine habitats. and hence marine biodiversity. can occur directly or indirectly from marine
developments.
Much coastal development includes direct reductions in marine habitats. Port developments are often
accompanied by the removal of large tracts of mangroves and other marine wetland habitats. The
construction of harbour facilities can entail severe modification. or even complete destruction. of
existing marine habitats.
Dredging can cause damaging siltation over seagrass areas and coral reefs. Losses of oil and chemicals
around port areas or through shipping can cause great harm to marine habitats. More vulnerable
organisms are removed or disadvantaged. and biodiversity is decreased. Off-shore oil facilities can have
direct impacts through the construction of associated harbour works. as well as offer considerable risk of
indirect impacts through oil spills.
The accidental introduction of exotic pest organisms through bilge water or attached to ships' hulls also
threatens many endemic species. Through the accidental introduction of one exotic species. several
existing species may be lost.
Coastal and off-shore tourist developments. including restaurants and even floating hotels. offer great
potential to increase the economic well-being of coastal communities. Such developments usually
require considerable infrastructure to support them. This may necessitate improved harbour facilities.
pontoons, refueling facilities etc. These facilities require water. electricity, transportation. landscaping
and other necessities. They will produce sewage and garbage. There may be spills of toxic chemicals.
insecticides. herbicides etc. Careful spatial planning and considerable interdepartmental cooperation
will be required to minimize the negative impacts of these developments on the local people, marine
habitats and marine biodiversity.
2 • 9 THREATS TO MARINE BIODIVERSITY
There is little doubt that the ultimate cause of the loss of marine (and terrestrial) biodiversity is the size
of the human population, and the desire and ability of each individual to consume increasingly more of
the earth's natural resources (Cairns and Lackey. 1992). Traditional natural resource management tends to
reduce diversity through simplification. fragmentation, and selective destruction (Norse, 1990). Such
management works toward the immediate benefit of a few desirable species which contributes to the loss
of biodiversity (Cairns and Lackey, 1992).
Poverty is a major cause of habitat and biodiversity loss in developing countries, but poverty also
results from a loss of biodiversity. Corollaries to the loss of biodiversity, which include siltation of
surface waters, depletion of freshwater and nearshore fisheries and destruction of watersheds, contribute
to poverty (Cairns and Lackey, 1992).
2.9.1 HABITAT DESTRUCllON
This is the main cause of biodiversity loss, and the greatest present threat to most species in
Indonesia. Included in this are habitat alteration. fragmentation. and simplification. The
activities can be direct (including mining reefs, removing mangroves and the siltation of
seagrass beds) or less direct (pollution by sediment, nutrients. thermal or salinity changes).
In Indonesia, coastal wetlands have historically seen very high rates of conversion. Coastal
wetlands have been destroyed to make room for urban and resort development. agriculture, and oil
and gas development, among other uses. There has also been significant alteration and
destruction of habitats due to recreational development. piers. construction of seawalls and shore-
73

Appendix 3
hardening structures (Beatley. 1991). Mangrove forests in Indonesia have been largely converted
into brackish water culture. Indonesia had an estimated 4.3 million ha of mangrove forest in
1970. of which only 2.5 million ha remains (Giesen. 1993).
Development along beaches and dunes has substantially reduced the nesting habitat for sea
turtles. shorebirds. and many other species. Although habitat loss is in some cases dramatic, it
often occurs incrementally over a period of time, and it is the cumulative impacts that are often
important (Beatley. 1991).
Sewage. sea-debris and other waste products from both industrial and domestic sources are
distributed by partiCUlar current patterns in several marine habitats adjacent to communities.
settlements and industrial complexes. These developments also produce sediment. nutrient
blooms and salinity changes e.g .• brackish water fish water ponds or prawn farming. Water
pollution and waste disposal have taken a heavy toll on marine habitats (UNEP. 1990 in Beatley.
1991).
Nutrient blooms can result from uncontrolled marine culture in such vulnerable coastal areas. Low
nutrient concentrations are characteristic of such marine ecosystems. and are essential for
maintaining the dominance of animal-plant symbionts (Tomascik. 1991). On the large scale. the
nutrient regime of waters around and within marine habitats determines to a large extent their
structure and function. In Indonesia, spatial and temporal variations in ground water discharge.
upwelling, and patterns of nutrient inputs result in major differences. especially in coral reefs
through both direct and indirect effects.
The rate of destruction of coral reef communities is also alarming in Indonesia (KLH. 1992b).
These biologically rich areas are being subjected to a host of destructive activities. including
mining, dynamite fishing and water pollution. Coral reefs have undergone serious damage from
ship and boat traffic and from increasing overuse by divers and tourists. among other pressures.
in certain parts of Indonesia. Heavy sedimentation due to logging and development in upland
areas of such developing countries as Indonesia is destroying coral reef ecosystems. and in turn
the fish and marine life dependent on reef communities (Hodgson and Dixon. 1990 in Beatley.
1991).
Including marine biodiversity considerations in coastal planning and in environmental impact
assessments (EIA or AMDAL) could help minimize unnecessary loses. If value can be placed on
marine biodiversity and if expected changes in biodiversity can be predicted. then losses can be
compared to the expected fmancial and social gains from proposed development projects before
they are initiated. The value of rehabilitating or recovering damaged habitat can also be assessed.
2.9.2 ExPLoITATION
Destruction can occur through tourism (anchorlboat damage. sewage from resorts etc.).
destructive fishing methods (non-specific poisons. dynamite or coral breaking) and over­
exploitation (changes in community structure through over fishing e.g .• Peruvian anchovy).
Marine environments have historically provided an abundance of food and other useable products.
but signs of extreme overexploitation are evident in many areas. Humans as a top predator can
have a devastating influence on marine ecosystems (Medley and Gaudian. 1990).
It is well accepted that over-fishing can have profound effects on the population dynamics of
multispecies communities. In the case of highly diverse fisheries. it is quite possible that rarer
species could be lost (Medley and Gaudian. 1990). Since the catch recording system. if present,
does not require identification to species level. such species will be lost without notice. The loss
of biological diversity at the species level due to overfishing is difficult to quantify but this could
be significant. The number of losses depend on one's definition of the marine environment and
whether a given organism depends on the marine environment for survival.
It is well known that it is common for artisanal fishing activities in certain parts of Indonesia to
include destructive methods. such as bombing, coral breaking, muroami and non-specific
poisons. This has close linkages to direct habitat destruction. There are many cases of species
losses from an area by direct destruction of marine habitats.
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Appendix 3
Exploitation of marine mammals has been the most documented, and many species of cetaceans
remain in jeopardy despite strong international controls in recent years. Some species are
endangered because they are simply in the way of harvesting activities directed at other species.
The human capability to harvest the ocean's bounty has reached frightening levels, with the use,
for instance, of driftnets that indiscriminately kill many forms of marine life, including
dolphins, sharks and sea turtles (Beatley, 1991).
Indonesia is attempting to promote ecotourism. Marine habitats are significant attractions for
foreign tourists (it is nationally committed that the focus of ecotourism is foreign tourists).
Many well-frequented sites, however, already show significant habitat destruction from such
activities as reclamation, anchoring/boat damage and sewage from resorts. Uncontrolled, these
activities destroy the biodiversity which tourists have paid to see.
2.9.3 SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS
Although there have been few strictly marine introductions (e.g., species of snapper in Hawaii)
there have been many estuarine introduction of species which are sufficiently salinity tolerant to
disperse along the coast (e.g., Tilapia in northern Australia).
2.9.4 GLOBAL CUMA TE CHANGES
Serious long-term threats including ozone depletion and global warming are posed by changes to
the global climate by man's activities (Beatley, 1991).
Ozone depletion is caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This will allow
radiation to cause lethal mutations and threaten the entire marine food chain.
Global warming will affect the distribution of suitable habitats causing great loss of biodiversity
if species are unable to migrate. Associated sea-level rises will allow the sea to inundate vast
areas of coastal wetlands and mangroves. Coral growth may not keep pace with sea-level rise. If
the area of productive habitats is reduced then coastal communities may be forced to exploit those
remaining more and more. Warmer seas will increase the severity and frequency of hurricanes and
storms, as well as extending the areas affected.
2.10 FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND COLLABORATIONS
2.10.1 GLOBAL
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held in Rio de
Janeiro on June 3-14, 1992. At this meeting, developing countries asserted their desire to follow
sustainable development policies and to obtain the technical and fmancial support of developed
countries. One of the components of Agenda 21 was the Global Biodiversity Strategy of which
Indonesia was a signatory.
Global Environment Facility
In September 1989, the French government, backed by Germany, proposed the establishment of
the Global Environment Facility (GEF) (UNDP, UNEP and WB 1991). The World Bank (WE) was
asked to sound out potential donors and international agencies. GEF is a three-year experiment
that provides grants for investment projects, technical assistance and research. GEF resources are
to be used to explore ways of assisting developing countries to protect the global environment
and to transfer environmentally benign technologies. These technologies must be in harmony
with the development goals of the countries involved. One of the main global issues is the
destruction of biological diversity, along with global warming, pollution of international
waters, and the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer (UNDP, UNEP and WE 1991).
The UNDP, UNEP and WE were chosen to co-manage the GEF because of their complimentary
skills in the fields of development and the environment. It is not. however, an exclusive
arrangement, because GEF may be sponsored by regional development banks and specialized
75

Appendix 3
United Nations agencies, including those working on food, agriculture, health, climate and
maritime issues.
A Small-Grants Programme is a part of GEF. A US$ 5-million small-grants fund supports the
initial phase of community-based activities by grassroots organizations and NGOs in developing
countries (UNDP, UNEP and WB 1991). On Iune 22, 1992, the Minister of State for Population
and Environment (KLH), Prof. Or Emil Salim. on behalf of the Government of Indonesia, signed
an exchange of letters with UNDP which established the GEF Small-Grants Programme in
Indonesia. The program is likely to focus on awareness creation and NGOs' human resource
development, problem solving and field implementation projects, and policy research to
complement field projects. LH is the responsible Government agency for the program, and
functions as the administrative contact between UNDP and the Government of Indonesia. Focus
on the main issues, particularly the destruction of biological diversity is, however, mainly on
terrestrial habitats.
2.10.2 REGIONAL
From a series of Senior Official Meetings (SOM) of Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
in Singapore. the first on the 7th and 8th of March, and the second on 20 -22nd of May 1990, it
was agreed that the establishment of a marine resource conservation working group was very
important. As a result the Marine Resource Conservation Working Group was established and
three major programs were agreed. These were: the transportation of hazardous material by sea,
mitigation of marine pollution. and prevention of marine debris. The last meeting of this
working group was held in Iakarta on 27-29 August 1992. The meeting discussed the Red
Tide/Toxic algae. The meeting focused on economic threats to marine biodiversity, mainly
through commercial fishing.
As previously mentioned, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) together with the World Bank are the organizers of the
GEF. Furthennore, the UNDP is assigned to be the administrator of foreign aid for the
environment. One of the programs is called Pilot Project to Keep our Coastline and Beaches
Clean. This has already been implemented in Indonesia in a program called Siar Bersih Laut
(SIBELUT) Indonesia. This pilot project receives its funding from Norway, and it is channeled
through the International Marine Organization, and the Government of Indonesia as represented
by LH. This project is an effort to raise public awareness concerning the threats to marine
biodiversity by waste pollution of the sea.
2.10.3 lNrER-GOVERNMENfAL
Norway has been increasing its relationship with the Government of Indonesia for environmental
programs. One of the programs is Sibelut. In relation to marine biodiversity, the Norwegian
government has also encouraged the Government of Indonesia to cooperate in the studies of
ozone depletion and global climate changes, which are both seen as threats to the marine
biodiversity.
The EMDI Project (Environmental Management Development in Indonesia) is a Jomt project
between the Ministry of State for Environment (previously KLH) and Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Canada. This project is currently in its third phase, and will terminate in March 1994.
EMDI's programs which relate to marine biodiversity are coastal management, marine
biodiversity management and integrated marine park management. This project is also preparing
the publication of the Ecology of Indonesian Seas. This cooperation has produced the National
Strategy for Integrated Coastal Management, the National Strategy for Sea Turtle Conservation
and Management, and the National Strategy for Coral Reef Conservation and Management.
Meanwhile, the preparation for the Model of Integrated Marine National Park Management Plan
is ongoing, with a pilot project located in Taka Bone Rate, South Sulawesi. Another product
which is also in the process of fmishing is the fonnulation of a National Strategy for Marine
Biodiversity Management.
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID), through the Natural Resources
Management Project, (NRMP) has adopted the Bunaken Marine Park as a model to prepare a
Management Plan, similar to what EMDI Project is doing with Taka Bone Rate. This project is a
76

Appendix 3
cooperation between the USAID and BAPPENAS, to assist the Directorate of Forest and Nature
Conservation and the Provincial Government of North Sulawesi to work together to coordinate
the implementation of the Marine National Park.
2.10.4 PIuvATESECTOR
Government agencies, institutions and NGOs have not been able to keep pace with the need for
their participation in natural resources conservation. This situation has become worse as the
tlueats to biodiversity have been increasing due to the intensive uses of marine resources which
are neither well-managed nor controlled. Threats posed by the unsustainable use of marine
resources, and impacts by the private sectors (commercial use) are greater than those of
traditional users (small scale, subsistence level) and are usually cumulative. For this reason a
mechanism for private sector involvement in marine biodiversity management has to be
established. This can be in the form of guidelines or through discussion between the Government
and the private sectors. The contribution of the private sector to management solutions can be
significant. and their contribution to some of the problems should not be ignored.
For some time, the private sector has been indirectly involved through personal or managerial
contact tluough the use of natural resources, and in biodiversity management. For example, an
NGO, Dana Mitra Lingkungan (DML) has been actively supported tluough environmentally­
related activities of NGOs through out Indonesia. A few Indonesian entrepreneurs are members of
DML. At present DML acts as an organizer for the GEF. Other organizations such as the
Masyarakat Pengusaha Hutan Indonesia give financial support to nature conservation by
contributing a certain percentage of their income. Support from the private sector that are
utilizing marine resources, however, is still scarce, even though marine activities promise more
benefits than do terrestrial activities.
2.11 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND CONVENTIONS
Represented by the DG of PP A, Indonesia ratified the Convention on the International Trade of
Endangered Species of Wild Aora and Fauna (CITES) in 1978. CITES Appendix I lists those species
considered to be tlueatened with extinction. From the marine habitats of Indonesia these include:
dugong, most whale species, black corals (Antiphalaria spp.), and marine turtles (WWF, 1992). Several
hard and soft corals and crocodiles are included in Appendix n, which lists those species which may
become endangered if trade is not controlled.
Indonesia signed the International Agreement on Biodiversity at the Earth Summit in Brazil in May,
1992. The agreement is very promising. Multilateral cooperation, mainly among the developing
countries and the third world countries, will be a key point to the success of its implementation. This
biodiversity strategy emphasizes the importance of decision makers of every country to realize the
assurance of their life supporting resources or the future through a sustainable use of natural resources.
Follow up by the Government of Indonesia has been relatively fast and intensive. A BAPPENAS
approved National Commission for Biodiversity has been established. LH is developing a marine
biodiversity management strategy through the EMDI Project phase ill.
There are a number of international agreements that Indonesia has signed; those related to marine
biodiversity are:
• Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia, CONS EA (a UNEP Program), December 1991
• International Convention or the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, in 1973 (modified as
Protocol 1973).
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, UNCLOS). 1982
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal), 1989
• RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands, 1991.
77

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Bames, R.S.K., and R.N. Hughes. 1982. An Introduction to Marine Ecology. Oxford, London:
Blackwell Scientific.
Beatley, T. 1991. Protecting Biodiversity in Coastal Environments: Introduction and Overview.
Coastal Management 19(1): 1-19.
Cairns, M.A., and R.T. Lackey. 1992. Biodiversity and Management of Natural Resources: the Issues.
Fisheries 17: 6-10.
Comitini and Hardjolukito. 1983. Indonesian Marine Fisheries Development and Strategy Under
Extended Maritime Jurisdiction. (Draft.)
Den Hartog, C. 1970. The Seagrasses of the World. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Departemen Kehutanan R.!. 1992. Indonesia: A Glimpse of Nature and Conservation. Jakarta: The Dept.
Djohani, R. H. 1992. WWF Marine Conservation Development Programme and Projects in Indonesia,
in particular in Pulau Seribu Marine National Park. A discussion paper for the National Seminar of
Coral Reef Management and Conservation Strategy, August 7-8, Jakarta.
Drexler, H.G., et al. 1989. Bryostatin 1 Indices Differentiation of B-Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
Cells. Blood 74:1747-1757.
Fitter, and Fitter, eds. 1987. Road to Extinction: Problems of Categorizing the Status of Taxa
Threatened with Extinction. Proceedings of a Symposium held by the Species Survival
Commission. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and United
Nations Environment Progr amme.
Giesen. W. 1993. Indonesia's Mangroves: an Update on Remaining Area & Main Management Issues.
Report for Asian Wetland Bureau-Indonesia.
Grant, S., et al. 1992. Effect of a Combined Composure to Cystosine arabinoside, Bryostatin I, and
Recombinant Granulocyte. Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor on the Clonogenic Growth in
vitro of Normal and Leukernic Human Hematopoietic Progenitor cells. Leukemia (6)5: 432-439.
Hodgson, G., and J.A. Dixon. 1990. Logging versus Fisheries in the Philippines. The Ecologist.
19(4):139.
KLH. 1992a. Indonesian Country Study on Biological Diversity, ed., S. Adisoemarto. Jakarta: KLH.
KLH. 1992b. National Seminar Strategy on Coral Reef Ecosystem Conservation and Management.
Indonesian State Ministry for Population and Environment (KLH), World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) Indonesia Programme, and Environmental Management Development in Indonesia (EMDI).
KLH Technical Team for Coral Reef Ecosystem Conservation and Management (Translation).
LIP!. 1991. National Biodiversity Database Workshop. Workshop Report, UPI, November 19-21.
Jakarta: LIP!.
78

References
McNeely, J.A. 1989. How to Pay for Conserving Biological Diversity. Ambio 21(3).
Medley, P.A.H., and G. Gaudian. 1990. Marine Biological Diversity. A Report to the Overseas
Development Administration. Marine Resources Assessment Group Ltd, London.
MREP. 1992. Marine Resource Evaluation and Planning Study. Vol. 1 Strategic Review. Robertson
Group in association with P.T. Agriconsult International.
Norse, E.A. 1990. Ancient Forests of the Pacific Northwest. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1988. Isolation and Structure of Cytostatic Depsipeptide Dolastin 13 from the sea
hare, Dollabella auricularia. Jour. of the Am. Chem. Soc. 111: 5015.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1989a. Isolation and Structure of the Strong Cell Growth and Tubulin Inhibitor
Combretastatin A-4. Experientia 45(2):209-211.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1989b. Isolation and Structure of the Cytostatic Linear Depsipeptide, Dolastin 15.
Jour. of Organic Chemistry. 54: 6005.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1989c. Antineoplastic Agents. 190. Isolation and Structure of the Cyclodepsi-.
peptide, Dolastin 14. Jour. Org. Chem. 55(10):2989-2990.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1989d. The absolute Configuration and Synthesis of Natural Dolastin 10. Jour. of the
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Pettit, G.R., et al. 1990. Synthetic Conversion of Bryostatin 2 to Bryostatin 1 and Related Brypyrans.
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Pettit, G.R., 1991a. The Bryostatins. In Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products, ed. W.
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Pettit, G.R., et al. 1991b. Antineoplastic Agents 224. Isolation and Structure of Neristatin 1. Jour. of
the Am. Chem. Soc. 113(17):6693.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1991c. Isolation and Structure of Bryostatin 14 and 15. Tetrahedron 47(22): 3601-
3610.
Pettit, G.R., et al. 1992. Antineoplastic Agents. 214. Isolation and Structure of Cephalostatin 7-9.
The Jour. of Organic Chem. 57(2):429.
Polunin, N.V.C. 1983. The Marine Resources of Indonesia. Oceanogr. Mar. Bioi. Ann. Rev. 21:455-
531.
Raup, D.M. 1988. Diversity Crisis in the Geological Past, 51-57. In Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson.
Washington. D.C.: National Academy Press.
Salm, R.V., and J.R. Clark. 1984. Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A guide for Planners and
Managers. Gland, Switzerland.: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources.
Salm, R., and Halim. 1984. Marine Conservation Data Atlas. Indonesia. Bogor: World Wide Fund for
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Schuchter, M., et al. 1991. Successful Treatment of Murine Melanoma with Bryostatin 1. Cancer Res.
(51): 682-687.
Siege!, M.M., et al. 1970. In: Food-Drugs from the Sea. Proceedings, 1969, ed. H.W. Youngken, 281-
295. Washington, D.C.: Marine Technology Society.
Soegiarto, A., and N. Polunin. 1982. The Marine Environment of Indonesia. Report for the
IUCN/WWF Indonesia Programme.
79

References
Sulistijo, and W.S. Atmadja. 1980. Komunitas rumput laut di Tanjung Benoa� Bali. Jakarta: Lembaga
Oseanologi Nasional Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia.
The Nature Conservancy. 1992. An Ecosystem Classification and Criteria for Biodiversity
Conservation in the Tropical Insular Pacific. Mimeo.
Thome-Miller, B., and 1. Catena. 1991. The Living Ocean: Understanding and Protecting Marine
Biodiversity. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Tomascik, T. 1993. Coral Reef Ecosystems: Environmental Management Guidelines. EMDI
Environmental Report, 35. Halifax: School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie
University; Jakarta: Ministry of State for Environment.
UNEP. 1990. The State of the Marine Environment. United Nations Environmental Program, Regional
Seas Reports and Studies No. 115. Nairobi.
UNDP/UNEP/WR 1991. Global Environment Facility: A Guideline.
World Resources Institute (WRI), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), and United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP.) 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to
Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably.
WWF. 1992. World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia Programme. Sustainable use of wildlife: the key to
preventing further species decline in Indonesia. Conservation Indonesia 8(3): 2-10.
80

4. TABLES
TABLE 1
History of Issues Related to Marine Biodiversity in Indonesia
1920s Fisheries and Coastal Fisheries Ordinances
1920s Snellius Expedition begins
1920s First detailed studies of coral reefs and mangroves
Appendix 3
1920s Japanese fishermen come, inter alia introduce muroami for reef fishes and long-line
for tuna
1930s 3-mile territorial sea limit established
1930s Increased land-settlement by Bajau
1938 First offshore tin-mining
1946 Stichtung Praawenfonds set up to support prawn shipping in South Sulawesi
1950s Indonesia oceanographic studies begin
1950s First primary productivity measurements by Galathea Expedition
1960s 12-mile territorial sea limit established
1962 "Innocent Passage of Foreign Vessels" Regulation
1962 Institute of Oceanology comes under Indonesian Institute of Sciences
1960s Modem mass-tourism begins
1960s Revival of motor shipping
1970s Commercial mangrove concessions established and expand
1970s First environmental impact statement affecting a marine area
1973 Indonesian Continental Shelf Law
1970s First marine reserves established
1970s First marine pollution data
1975 First major oil spill ("Showa Maru" in the Strait of Malacca)
1970s First regulations restricting trawler fisheries
1970s CITES signed
1970s National Symposium on Marine Conservation
19705 UNEP Southeast Asia Regional Seas Program established
81

Table 1 (continued)
19705 Third UNCLOS -submission on archipelagic states
19705 Exploration of Indian Oceans pelagic fIsheries
1980s 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone established
1980s First management plan for a marine conservation area
1980s Draft Convention on International Law of the Sea
19805 Severe curtailment of trawler fIshery development proposed by Government
1980s Development of provincial university studies of the coastal zone
1983 Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Act -EEZ established at 200 nautical
miles
1989 National Strategy for Management of Biodiversity. KLH
1990 Act No. 5 Concerning the Conservation of Living Resources and Their Ecosystems
1991 Tropical Forestry Action Programme (MofIFAO)
1991 Biodiversity Action Plan for Indonesia (BAPPENAS)
1991 National Strategy and Action Plan of Marine Turtle Conservation and Management
1991 Formed Indonesian Biodiversity Country Study Standing Committee
1991 National Biodiversity Database Workshop, UPI. mc
1992 Indonesian Country Study on Biological Diversity
1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro. Brazil
1992 Indonesia signs International Agreement on BiodiversityNational Biodiversity
Management Programme (NBMP)
Formed National Biodiversity Working Group
1960 Wawasan Nusanlara (Archipelagic Concept) Law -territorial waters extended to 12
miles
1962 "Innocent Passage of Foreign Vessels" Regulation
1973 Indonesian Continental Shelf Law
1983 Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Act -EEZ established at 200 nautical
miles
1992 Joint Statement of Cooperation and Shared Ideals by LIPI. KLH. and the National
Biodiversity Institute of the RepUblic of Costa Rica
82

TABLE 2
Marine and Coastal Zone Management Legislation in Indonesia
1916 Sponge Fishery Ordinance
1920 Fishery Ordinance
Whale Ordinance
1925 Harbour Regulation
1926 Nuisance Ordinance 226/1926 (Permits for Industry)
1927 Petroleum Transport Ordinance
Coastal Fishery Ordinance
1939 Ordinance of Territorial Sea and Marine Environmentll939
1960
_UU No. 4 Prp. 1960 (Waters of Indonesia) (MOC)
1961 UU No. 129 (Territorial Sea and Maritime Zones Act)
1967 UU No. 11 (Mining Law)
1970 UU No. 33 (Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act)
1973 Indonesian Continental Shelf Act (Control of air and water pollution)
Appendix 3
KEPMEN No. 04/p/pertamb./1973 (Prevention and handling of water pollution from oil
exploration and exploitation) (MOME)
KEPMEN No. 214/Kpts/um/l/1973 (Prohibition of export of certain fIsh species from
Indonesia) (MOA)
1974 UU No. 11/1974 (Water resources development)
PP No. 17 (Controlling offshore exploitation and exploration)
1975 KEPMEN No. 01/Kpts/Um/l/1975 (Preservation of fIshery resources) (MOA)
KEPMEN No. lS.I!3/9/1975 (Technical team for Law of the Sea) (MOJ)
KEPMEN No. 123/Kpts/um/3/1975 (Regulation re purse seine width) (MOA)
KEPMEN No. 02. Kpts/um/l/1975 (Conservation of fIsh in the marine waters of !rian
Jaya) (MOA)
KEPMEN No. 317/Kpts/um/7/1975 (Exploitation of fish resources along the north
coast of Java and Madura) (MOA)
1976 KEPMEN No. 609/Kpts/um/9/1976 (Fishing areas for trawlers) (MOA)
1978 KEPPRES No. 46/1978 (International convention for control of pollution from ships)
(MOWE) of International Fund for Oil Pollution Damage 1971)
1980 KEPPRES No. 39/1980 (Use of trawl nets in specifIc areas of Indonesia)
1982 UU No. 4/1982 (Basic provisions for the management of the living
environment)(MOPE)
KEPPRES No. 85/1982 (Use of shrimp trawls)
1983 UU No. 5 (Indonesian exclusive economic zone)
1985 UU No. 9/1985 (Fisheries Act)
KEPMEN No. 475/Kpts/IK.120/7/1985 (Permits and fees for foreigners fishing in
Indonesian waters) (MOA)
1986 KEPMEN No. 167/HM 207/PHB-1986 (International CertifIcate for petroleum. ships.
hazardous waste) (MOC)
KEPMEN No. 123/Kpts-II!1986 (Marine nature preserves) (MOF)
1988 KEPMEN No. 417/1988 (Control of exploitation of resources) (MOA)
1989 KEPMEN No. 687/Kpts-II/I989 (Touri sm in regional and national parks and marine
parks) (MOF)
1990 KEPMEN No. 816/Kpts/IK.120/Il/1990 (Regulations re foreign fishing vessels in
Indonesia's seas) (MOA)
Ambient Seawater Quality Standards (MOPE)
National Contingency Plan for Emergency Oil Spill Response (MOPE)
83

Appendix 3
ApPENDIX A: MARINE BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA TECHNICAL TEAM
Chairman:
Ir. Aca Sugandhy, MSc.
Assistant Minister of the State Ministry of Environment
Natural Resources Management Division
n Medan Merdeka Barat IS, lakarta 10110
Deputy Chairman:
Prof. Dr. Kasijan Romimohtarto
Natural Sciences Division, The Indonesia Institute of Science (LIPI)
Head of the Oceanology Research and Development LIPI
n Pasir Putih, Ancol
North I akarta
Secretary:
Jr. Henk Uktolseya, MSc.
Coastal and Marine Coordinator, Natural Resources Division, LH
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta
Steering Committee:
1. Editorial Committee
Drs. Sudariyono; Marine and Coastal Staff
Natural Resources Division. LH
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta
Dr. Reg Watson; EMDI Advisor, Marine Biodiversity Management
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta
Drs. Arief Wicaksono; EMDI Local Advisor for Marine Biodiversity Management
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta
Dra. Ida Aju N Purbasari; EMDI Local Advisor for Marine Biodiversity Management
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
Jakarta
Ani Kartikasari, EMDI Publications Coordinator
Gedung Arthaloka
n. lend. Sudirman
Jakarta
2. Sub-Team for Research and Development
Dr. Jr. Rokhmin Dahuri; Head, Coastal Area Program, Environmental Study Center, IPB
Kampus IPB Darmaga, PO BOX 145, BOGOR
Tel: 62-251-21261
Prof. Dr. Jr. M. Natsir Nessa, MA; Head, Marine Science Department.
Hasannudin University, Kampus Tamalanrea
n Perintis Kemerdekaan. Ujung Pandang
Telp: 62-411-510107
84

Ir. Badrudin, M.Sc.; Peneliti Madya, Perikanan Laut, Departemen Pertanian,
Komplek Pelabuhan Perikanan Samudera
Muara Baru, 1akarta Utara
Telp: 62-21-6602044
Dr Kasim Moosa
Research and Development Center for Oceanology
Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Ancol Timur, 1akarta
Telp: 62-21-683850
3. Sub-Team Conservation and Management
Appendix 3
Ir. Yulheri Abas, M.Sc.; Staf Direktorat Taman Nasional dan Hutan Wisata, Direktorat 1endral
Perlindungan Hutan dan Konservasi Alam (PHPA), Departemen Kehutanan; 1alan. Ir. H. Djuanda No.
IS, Bogor
Telp: 62-251-323067
Drs. Achmad Abdullah; Staf Sub-direktorat Kawasan Konservasi Laut, Direktorat Konservasi Alam,
Ditjen PHPA, Departemen Kehutanan; 1alan Ir. H. Djuanda No. 15, Bogor
Telp: 62-251-323067
Ir. Suharyadi Salim, M.Sc.; Staf Direktorat Sumber Hayati, Ditjen Perikanan, Departemen Pertanian;
1alan Harsono R.M. No. 3, Ragunan. Pasar Minggu, 1akarta Selatan
Telp: 62-21-7804116 ext. 3604
Dra. Rili Djohani, M.Sc.; Marine Programme Executant, World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia
Programme (WWF/lP); 1alan Pela No. 3, Kebayoran, 1akarta Selatan
Telp: 62-21-7203095
Dr. Reg Watson; EMDI Advisor, Marine Biodiversity Management
n Medan Merdeka Barat 15
1akarta
4. Sub-Team Institutions Development and Legal Aspect
Ir. Henk Uktolseya, M.Sc.; Koordinator Pesisir dan Lautan, Bidang Pengelolaan Sumber-sumber
Alam. LH; 1alan Merdeka Barat 15, 1akarta 10110
Telp: 62-21-374307
Barlin, S.H.; Pjs. Perundang-undangan dan Kerjasama Luar Negeri, Sekretaris Menteri Negara LH;
1alan Medan Merdeka Barat IS, 1akarta Selatan
Telp: 62-21-374307
Drs. Max Zieren; Head, Monitoring and RS Unit, Asian Wetland Bureau-Indonesia; 1alan Arzimar III
No. 17, Bogor
Telp: 62-251-325755
5. Sub-Team Marine Blodlverslty Use
Ir. Sutardjo; Staf Direktor Bina Sumber Hayati, Ditjen Perikanan, Departemen Pertanian; 1alan
Harsono R.M. No. 3, Ragunan, Pasar Minggu, 1akarta Selatan
Telp: 62-21-7804116 ext. 3604
Ir. Bambang Heriyanto; Staf Sekretaris 1endral Pariwisata, Pos dan Telekomunikasi; 1alan Kramat
Raya No. 81, 1akarta Pusat
Telp: 62-21-3103181
Darwis Toawi; Staf Direktorat Perjalanan Wisata, Ditjen Parowisata, Departemen Pariwisata, Pos
dan Telekomunikasi; 1alan Kramat Raya No. 81, 1akarta Pusat
Telp: 62-21- 3103181
85

Appendix 3
Drs. SUdariyono; Staf Asisten IT Meneg LH Bidang Pesisir dan Lautan; Jalan Medan Merdeka Barat
15. Jakarta 10110
Telp: 62-21-354956
6. Sub-Team Public Awareness and Participation
Dra. Gayatri Reksodiprodjo; World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia Programme (WWF/IP); Jalan
Pela No. 3. Kebayoran. Jakarta Selatan
Telp: 62-21-7203095
Ir. Liliek Hasanuddin; Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia (WALfll); Jalan Penjernihan I Komplek
Keuangan No. 15. Pejompongan. Jakarta Pusat
Drs. Iswahyudi; Local Advisor EMDI Project; Jalan Merdeka Barat 15. Jakarta 10110
Telp: 62-21-354956
Drs. Arief Wicaksono; Local Advisor EMDI Project -Marine Biodiversity Management; Jalan
Medan Merdeka Barat 15. Jakarta 1010
Telp: 62-21-354956
86

00
-.l
ApPENDIX B: PRIORITY MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA
2.1 PRIORITY MARINE FAUNA (DEPARTEMEN KEHUTANAN, INDONESIA (1992»
No. Phylum Class Local Name Enellsh Name
1. Chordata Mammalia Lwnba-Iumba Timah Plumboeus Dolphin
2. Lwnba-lwnba Cina Chinese White Dolphin
3. Lwnba-lumba Gigi Kasar Rough Toothed Dolphin
4. Lwnba-lwnba Botol Bottle Nose Dolphin
5. Lwnba-lumba Pemangsa Little Killer
6. Paus Paruh Angsa Curier's Whale
7. Paus Biru Blue Whale
8. Paus Bersirip Fin Whale, Razorback
9. Paus Bongkok Humpback Razorback
10. Chordata Aves Pecuk Vlar Oriental Darter
11. Bintayung Pulau Christmas Christmas Island Frigate bird
12. Kuntul Besar Greater Egret
13. Kuntul Sedang Lesser Egret
14. Kuntul Kecil Little Egret
15. Kuntul China Chinese Egret
16. Kuntul Karang Pacific-reef Egret
17. Kuntul Kerbau Cattle Egret
18. KowakMerah Rufous Night heron
19. Bangau Hitam Woolly Necked stork
20. Bluwok Putih Milky Stork
21. Bluwok Berwama Painted Stork
22. Roko-roko Ibis Hitam Glossy Ibis
23. Dara laut Berjambul Chinese Crested Tern
24. Camar Coklat Brown Noddy
25. Camar Kerudi Putih White Capped Noddy
26. Camar Hitam Black Noody
27. Dara Laut Kumis Whisered Tern
28. Dara Laut Sayap Hitam Black Tern
28. Dara Laut Sayap Putih White Winged Tern
29. Dara Laut Paruh Hitam Gull Billed Tern
30. Camar Putih Mata Cincin White Tern
31. Dara Laut Kecil Little Tern
32. Dara Laut Kendal Bridled Tern
33. Dara Laut Jambu Kecil Lesser Crested Tern
34. Dara Laut Jambu Besar Greater Crested Tern
Scientific Name
Sotalia plombea
Sotalia chinensis
Steno bredanensis
Trusiops spp"
Peponocephala electra
Ziphius cavirostris
Balaenoptera musculus
Balaenoptera physalis
Megaptera novaeangliae
Anhinga melanogaster
Fregata andrewsi
Egrella alba
Egrella intermedia
Egrella garzetta
Egrella eulopholes
Egrella sacra
Bubulcus ibis
Nycticorax caledonicus
Ciconia episcopus
Ibis cinerus
Ibis leucocephalus
Plegadis falcinollus
Sterna ziumermani
Anous stolidus
Anous minutus
Anous tenuiroslris
Chlidonias hybrida
Chlidonias niger
Chlidonias leucpterus
Gelochelidon nilotica
Gygis alba
Sterna albifrons
Sterna anacthetus
Sterna bengalensis
Sterna bergii
Status
Protected
�
�
�
;:s
l:I..
H"
v...

00
00
ApPENDIX B: PRIORITY MARINE FAUNA AND FWRA (CONTINUED)
2.1 PRIORITY MARINE FAUNA (DEPARTEMEN KEHUTANAN, INDONESIA (1992»
No. Phylum Class Local Name English Name
35. Chordata Aves Dara Laut Dougaltii Roseate Tern
36. Dara Laut Hitam Sooty Tern
37. Dara Laut Hirunda Common Tern
38. Dara Laut Tengkuk Hitam Black Naped Tern
39. Chordata Reptile Penyu Belimbing Leather Back Turtle
40. Penyu Ridel Grey Olive Loggerhead
41. Penyu Tempayan Red Brown Loggerhead
42. Coelenterata Anthozoa Akar Bahar, Koral Hitam Black Coral
43. Mollusca Gastropoda Kima Raksasa Giant Clam
44. Kima Selatan Southern Giant Clam
45. Kima Cina China Clam
46. Kima Kunia, Lubang Saffron ColouredIBoring
47. Kima Sisik (Kima Sending) Scaly Clam
48. KimaBesar Small Giant Clam
49. Kima Telapak Besar Horse Hoof (Bear's Paw)
50. Triton Terompet Triton Trumpet
51. Batu Laga. Sipuy Hijau Green Snail
52. Susu Bundar. Troka Mother of Pearl{fop Shell
53. Arthropoda Crustacea Ketam Kelapa Coconut Crab/Robber
Ketam Telapak Kuda Horse Shoe Crab
Mimi King Crab
�
�
'"
�
Scientific Name Status
v"
Sterna dougaltii Protected
Sterna uscata
Sterna hirundo
Sterna sumalrana
Darmochelys coriacea
Lepidochelys oliviaceae
Carella carella
Antiphates sp.
Tridacna gigas
Tridacna derasa
Hippopus porcellanus
Tridacna crocea
Tridacna squamosa
Tridacna maxima
Hippopus hippopus
Cheronia tritonis
Turbo marmoratus
Trochus niloticus
Birgus latro
Tachypleus gigas
Tachypleus tridentatus

00
\0
2.2 PRIORITY MARINE FLORA
No. Division Class
1. Spennatophyta Angiospennae
2. Rhodophyta Rhodophyceae
Local Name English Name
? Seagrass
Bulung lipan Zanzibar weed
Scientific Name
Halophilla becarii
Euchema serra
Description
Specimens recorded from
Indonesia but no longer
found (den Hartog: 1970).
Restricted distribution.
Found in Indonesia only
in Benoa Bali (near an
airport site) (Sulistijo and
Atmadja,1980; Atmadja
and Sulistijo. 1980) .•
Also found in Zanzibar
I
�
�
�
�.
v...

Appendix 3
2.3 Preliminary Shortlist of Birds Considered as Significant Species In Coastal
amd Marine Areas In Indonesia (Compiled by: Rusila Noor, Fauna Unit -AWB
Indonesia, 1993).
Legal Protection Occurrence
Species English Name
Ind RDB CITES Status
Daption capense Cape Petrel R Vi
Pterodroma pJureopygia Dark-rumped Petrel Vi
Pterodroma baraui Barau's Petrel Vi
Pachyptila desolata Antarctic Prion Vi
Puffmu.s facificus Wedge-tailed Shearwater Vi
Puffinus carneipes Flesh-footed Shearwater Vi
Calonectris leucomelas Streaked Shearwater Vi
BuIweria buIwerii Bulwer's Petrel Vi
B uIweria fallax Jouanin's Petrel Vi
Oceanites oceanicus Wilson's Storm Petrel Vi
Oceanodroma monorhis Swinhoe's Storm Petrel Vi
OceanodronuJ matsudairae Matsudaira's Storm Petrel Vi
Phaeton lepturus White-tailed Tropicbird Re
Phaeton rubricauda Red-tailed Tropicbird Re
Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm Petrel Vi
Fregata andrewsi Christmas Frigatebird
*
E I Vi
SuIa dactylatra Masked Booby
*
Re, Vi
Sula abbotti Abbott's Booby
*
E I Vi
SulaSuIa Red-footed Booby
*
Re, Vi
SuIa leucogaster Brown Booby
*
Re, Vi
Pelecanus philippensis Spot-billed Pelican
*
I Vi
Ardea sumatrana Great-billed Heron Re
Phalcrocorax carbo Great Cormorant Re, Vi
Ardeola bacchus Chinese Pond Heron Vi
Ixobrychus eurhythmus Schrenck's Bittem Vi
Egretta euIophotes Chinese Egret
*
E Vi
Gorsachius goisagi Japanese Night-heron V Vi
Mycteria cinerea Milky Stork
*
V 1 Re
Ciconia stormi Storm's Stork R Re
Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked Stork
*
Re
Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant
*
V Re
Nycticorax caledonicus Rufous Night-heron Re
Threskiornis melanocephalus Black-headed Ibis
*
Re
Pseudibis davisoni White-shouldered Ibis
*
V Re
Pandion haliaetus Osprey
*
Re, Vi
Cairina scutuIata White-winged Duck
*
V 1 Re
Aramidopsis plateni Snoring Rail
*
I Re
Gymnocrex rosenbergii Blue-faced Rail I Re
HabroptiIa waIlacii Drummer Rail I Re
90

Appendix 3
2.3 Preliminary Shortlist of Birds Considered as Significant Species in Coastal
and Marine Areas in Indonesia (Compiled by: Yus Rusila Noor, Fauna Unit •
A WB Indonesia, 1993) (eOnlinued).
Species English Name
Heliopais personala Masked Finfoot
Tringa flavipes Lesser YeUowlegs
Tringa guJtifer Spotted Greenshank
Limnodromu.s semipalmatus Asian Dowitcher
Seolopax clebensis Sulawesi Woodcock
Seolopax roehussenii Moluccan Woodcock
Sterna bernstenii Chinese Crested Tern
Anous stolidus Brown Noddy
Anous minuJus Black Noddy
Stereorarius pomarinus Pomarine Skua
Stereorarius maeeormieki South Polar Skua
Hydropogne easpia Caspian Tern
Gygis alba White Tern
Ducula bieolor Pied Imperial Pigeon
Caloenas nicobariea Nicobar Pigeon
Pitta megarhyncha Mangrove Pitta
Cenlropus nigrorufus Javan Coucal
Gerygone levigaster Mangrove Gerygone
Zosterops flavus Javan White-eye
Notes:
Ind:
ROB:
Protected by Indonesian Regulation
Listed in Red Data Book
CITES:
Re:
Vi:
E (Endangered)
V (Vulnerable)
R (Rare)
I (Indeterminate)
Appendix 1
Resident
Visitor
91
Legal Protection Occurrence
Ind RDB CITES Status
V Re
Vi
*
I 1 Vi
*
R Vi
I Re
I Re
*
I Vi
*
Re
*
Vi
Vi
Vi
Vi
Vi
Re
Re
*
Re
V Re
Re
Re

1.0
N
ApPENDIX C: PRIORITY MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS
3.1 Priority Marine Protected Areas In Indonesia as assessed by WWF as part of a IUCN·CNPPA/BGBRMPA/World Bank
Workshop on Global Representatives or Marine Protected Areas.
Site Location Area Description
Teluk Irian Jaya 1,453,500 ha This area includes a wide variety of marine and coastal habitats such as coral reefs,
Cenderawasih mangroves, seagrass beds, and estuaries. The total coral area is approximately 80,000
National Park ha. There is a high coral diversity and several rare and endangered species are still found
including: Green and Hawksbill turtles, dugong, giant clams, Trochus spp., and
Charonia tritonis. All the coral cays have abundant strand vegetation. There is an urgent
need for management to address commercial and destructive fishing issues which occur
in the park
Pulau Banda Banda Sea, Moluccu 2,500 ha Unique marine reserve with nine islands, all of volcanic origin, providing habitat for
many endemic species. Very wide reef flat with a high diversity value. Giant clams,
mother of pearls, and Hawksbill turtles are still abundant. An excellent tourist
destination: easily accessible with spectacular dropoffs and an abundance of pelagic
animals.
Taka Bone Rate Flores Sea 530,785 ha Largest atoll in Indonesia. High priority for coral reef invertebrates. Extensive reefs and
seagrass provide an abundance of grazing for turtles. Green and HawksbiII nest here.
Molluscan fauna is diverse but some including mother of pearl, trochus. green snail,
pearl oysters, giant clams and horsehoof clams were intensively fished and are now rare.
Area unmanaged and heavily exploited. Damage by dynamite fishing and commercial
fisheries urgently requires an implemented management plan.
Karimunjawa North Java Sea 111,625 ha Famous for coral reefs, nesting seabirds, Green and Hawksbill turtles and giant clams.
Important for fishing and nursery areas for commercial species including groupers and
cod. Over exploitation and destructive fishing practices have become a threat to the
park.
NOTE: Criteria: Conservation value and biodiversity. Representation of each biogeographic region. Criteria include ecological, socio-economic and
pragmatic considerations used on a national scale matching candidates to seven biogeographic regions. Regional criteria were used within each region to
select priority areas (Personal Communication, Rili Djohani, WWF, 1993)
I
�
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1.0
UJ
3.2 Proposed New Wetland Reserves and ExtensIons to ExIsting Reserves (Personal CommunIcation, Max ZIeren, A WB,
1993). HL means Protection Forest. TbIs list does not exclude tbe sites proposed ror Maluku wbicb are processed by
BlrdHre International (ICBP).
WETLANDS
Present Forested
Protected Area Proposed and other NON WETLAND
Non Hutan Protected Area Mangrove Wetlands HABITAT
Name Llndun2 (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) Lake (ha) (ha)
KALIMANTAN
Danau Bangkau
- 10,000
- - 625 9,375
Muara Kendawangan m.. 150,000 10,000 140,000
- -
Tanjung Penghujan
- 40,000 17,500 22,500
- -
Danau Sentarum 80,000 120,000
- 97,500 22,500
-
Danau Sembuluh
- 22,500
- 14,500 8,000
-
Kelompok Hutan Kahayan
- 150,000 50,000 100,000
- -
Hutan Bakau Panti Timur
- 66,650 66,550
- - -
Teluk Apar and Teluk Adang 46,900 130,000 90,000 40,000
- -
Perairan Sungai Mahakam
- 200,000
- 75,000 125,000
-
Pulau Sebuku SomeHL 43,200 43,200
- - -
Pulau Suwangi
- 500 250
- - 250
lUfAL 126,900 932,850 277,500 489,500 156,125 9,625
�
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3.2 continued.
Present
Name Protected Area Proposed
Non Hutan Protected Area
Llndung (ha) (ha)
SULAWESI
Lariang SomeHL 50,000
DanauTempe - 25,000
Matano- Towuti Lakes 84,000 250,000
Mangrove between Molosipat- SomeHL 23,000
Lemito-Marisa
Laa/Tambalako Coastal - 20,000
Swamps
Polewai - 8,000
Togian Islands
- (100,000)
'i?
Lasolo Plain
- 60,000
Selat Muna 10 20,000
Moromaho Seabird Island
- 200
Kakabi� Seabird Island - 150
Sarege
- 100
lUfAL 210,910 456,450
Present
Protected Area Proposed
Non Hutan Protected Area
Name Llndung (ha) Lha)
SUMATERA
Taman Nasional Berbak
- 38,000
(Perluasan I)
Taman Nasional Berbak
- 125,000
(Perluasan IT)
Pantai Cemara (Perluasan ill - 7
Taman Nasional Berbak)
Sungai Sembilang part of it HL 247,500
WETLANDS
Forested
and other
Mangrove Wetlands
(ha) (ha)
7,000 37,500
- 9,000
- 664
14,000 5,000
2,400 17,600
4,000
-
no data no data
available available
4,500 8,000
5,000 -
200
150
100
36,900 78,214
WETLANDS
Forested
and other
Mangrove Wetlands
(hal (ha)
- 38,000
- 125,000
- 7
165,000 82,500
Lake (ha)
-
16,000
75.336
-
-
-
no data
available
-
-
91,336
Lake (ha)
-
-
-
-
NON WETLAND
HABITAT
(ha)
5,500
-
174,000
4,000
-
4,000
no data available
47,500
15,000
250,000
NON
WETLAND
HABITAT
(ha)
-
-
-
-
i
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\0
Vl
ApPENDIX D:
Group of
Organism
Bryoloa
Mollusca
Combretaceae
Ptero branchia
MARINE FLORA AND FAUNA OF KNOWN OR SUSPECTED BIOACTlVE OR MEDICAL VALUE
Dry
Specific Organism Component Known/Suspected Value
Bugula neritima Bryostatin 1 Anti turnor
Bryostatins Anti leukemic agent
Bryostatins 14 & 15 Inhibited growth leukemic cell
Neristatin 1 Anti tumor promoter
Dolabella auricularia Dolastatin 10 Anti neoplastic
Inhibited growth leukemic cell
Dolastatin 13 New cell growth inhibitory
Dolastatin 14 Inhibited growth leukemic cell
Dolastatin 15 Anti cancer drugs
Combretum caffrum Combretastatin Cell growth & tubulin inhibitor
Cephalodiscus gilchristi Cephalos tatin Cell growth inhibitor
Reference
Grant, S. et al. 1992
Schuchter, L.M. et al. 1991
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1991a
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1991c
Drexler, H.G. et al. 1989
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1991b
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1989d
Bai, R. et al. 1989
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1988
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1989c
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1989b
Pettit, G.R. et al. 1989a
Pellit, G.R. et al. 1992
;t.
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5.
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u...

\0
0\
Appendix D continued.
Group of
Organism Specific Organism
ECleninascida lurbinala
Goryonians sp.
Laminaria digitala
Chondria armata
Fucus sp.
Macrocy slis sp.
Sargassum sp.
Rhodophyceae
Chondrus sp.
Rhodophyceae Gyastina sp.
Rhodophyceae Eucheuma sp.
Diginea simplex
Gracillaria lenera
Laurencia glaudulifera
Laurencia rupponica
Enteromorpha linza
Acantophora delilei
Saxidormus giganleus
Bifurcasia bifurcata
Dry
Component
CFJNI
CFJNI
CFJNI
Dumoic acid
Alginic acid/Algimat
Phycocolloid
Phycocolloid
Phycocolloid
Karnic acid
CE/NI,Agar
Laurencin
Laureatin
Vit. B 12
Vit. B 12
Saxitoxin
Bifuratal
Known/Suspected Value
Anti tumor
Cardiovascular
Antiarithmatic effect
High vitamin & mineral content
Anthelmintic
Raw material for industries
Raw material for industries
Raw material for industries
Raw material for industries
Anthelmentic
Antiulcer, Culture medium for
Microbiology
Antimicrobial activity
Neuromuscular paralyzer
Antimicrobial
Reference
Sigel et al. 1970
�
�
S
�
�

Appendix 3
ApPENDIX E: COMMITMENT S MADE TO THE NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR MARINE BIODIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT BY VARIOUS INDONESIAN GOVERNMENT AGENCIES. NATIONAL
WORKSHOP, 19TH JUNE 1993, ANCOL, JAKARTA.
5 . 1. Directorate General PHP A
UPAYA KONSERVASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM HAYATI LA UT DI INDONESIA
I. PENDAHULUAN
Indonesia memiliki kekayaan sumberdaya alam yang sangat besar. yang terdiri dari berbagai tipe
ekosistem hutan. perairan dan kehidupan dasar laut. disamping berbagai sumberdaya alam lainnya seperti
sinar matahari. gelombang laut. keunikan dan keindahan alam. serta sumberdaya alam yang tidak dapat
diperbaharui.
Semua sumberdaya alam tersebut merupakan anugerah Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan merupakan modal dasar
yang perlu dimanfaatkan secara optimal dan lestari bagi kesejahteraan umat manusia pada umumnya dan
rakyat Indonesia pada khususnya.
Dalam Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara 1993 -1998. telah disebutkan bahwa semua sumberdaya alam
baik di darat, di laut maupun di udara, harus dikelola dan dimanfaatkan dengan memelihara kelestarian
fungsi lingkungan hidup agar dapat mengembangkan daya dukung dan daya tampung lingkungan yang
memadai untuk memberikan manfaat sebesar-besamya bagi kemakmuran rakyat. baik bagi generasi masa
kini maupun bagi generasi masa depan.
Oleh karena itu. dalam upaya-upaya pemanfaatan. pengelolaan dan pengembangan sumberdaya alam
hayati laut yang ada di Indonesia, harus dilakukan secara bijaksana, terencana dan terkendali yang
diarahkan untuk mempertahankan keberadaannya dalam keseimbangan yang dinamis. dengan berbagai
kebijaksanaan yang tepat sehingga terjamin kelestariannya. serta dilaksanakan melalui upaya-upaya
perlindungan. pengawetan dan pelestarian pemanfaatan jenis beserta ekosisternn ya.
11. KONDISI SAAT 1Nl
Para ahli berpendapat bahwa Indonesia memiliki potensi sumberdaya alam hayati tidak kurang dari
sekitar 25.000 jenis flora dan 400.000 jenis fauna yang tersebar diseluruh pelosok tanah air. mulai dari
dasar laut sampai dengan ke puncak-puncak gunung (Direktorat Penyuluhan Konservasi Sumber Daya
Alam. 1991).
Berdasarkan Soegiarto dan Polunin (1981). sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia terdiri dari
kelompok tumbuhan 833 jenis. moluska 2.500 jenis. terumbu karang 70 jenis. crustacea 214 jenis.
ekinodermata 759 jenis. ikan 2.000 jenis. reptil 5 jenis. burung 152 jenis dan mamalia 25 jenis.
Pada saat ini upaya pemanfaatan terhadap sumberdaya alam hayati laut terse but sudah banyak dilakukan.
namun demikian terdapat kecenderungan adanya pemanfaatan yang berlebihan tanpa memperhatikan
pelestariannya, yang dapat mengakibatkan pelestariannya. yang dapat mengakibatkan beberapa jenis
sumberdaya alam hayati laut mulai mengalami kelangkaan. dan dikhawatirkan akan mengalami
kepunahan.
Ill. MANFAAT KEBERADAAN SUMBERDAYA ALAM HAYATI LAUT
Disamping dapat dimanfaatkan bagi kesejahteraan umat manusia pada umurnnya dan rakyat Indonesia
pada khususnya. Keberadaan sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia ini dapat juga dimanfaatkan antara
lain sebagai sumber plasma nutfah (genetic resources). tempat atau wahana bagi pengembangan ilmu
pengetahuan. sarana pendidikan dan wisata bahari.
IV. STRATEG I KONSERVASI
Dengan adanya perkembangan pembangunan dan kemajuan teknologi. dapat mewarnai berbagai
penurunan kualitas sumberdaya alam dan lingkungan hidup manusia di seluruh dunia. Untuk mengatasi
hal ini berbagai negara dan organisasi-organisasi konservasi (seperti IUCN. UNEP dan WWF). serta para
pakar lingkungan. pada tanggal 5 Maret 1980. telah mencetuskan Strategi Konservasi Dunia (World
97

Appendix 3
Conservation Strategy) yang juga menjiwai upaya-upaya konservasi di setiap negara, termasuk
Indonesia.
Tiga tujuan pokok dari strategi konservasi tersebut adalah:
1 . Perlindungan terhadap kelangsungan proses ekologis sistem penyangga kehidupan.
2. Pengawetan keanekaragaman sumber plasma nutfah di dalam dan di luar kawasan serta
pengaturan tingkat pemanfaatan jenis-jenis yang terancam punah dengan memberikan status
perlindungannya.
3. Pelestarian pemanfaatan jenis dan ekosistemnya, melalui:
a. Pengendalian eksploitasi yang sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip pelestarian.
b. Memajukan usaha-usaha rekreasi, pariwisata, penelitian dan pendidikan.
c. Pengaturan perdagangan flora dan fauna.
d. Memajukan budidaya, pengembangan dan perbaikan selektif semua jenis yang mempunyai
nilai langsung bagi manusia.
Oleh karena itu, berhasilnya konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia, juga berkaitan erat
dengan tercapainya tiga sasaran pokok yang sesuai dengan Undang-Undang Nomor 5 Tahun 1990
(Departemen Kehutanan, 1990), yaitu:
1. Menjamin terpeliharanya proses ekologis yang menunjang sistem penyangga kehidupan bagi
kelangsungan pembangunan dan kesejahteraan manusia (perlindungan sistem penyangga
kehidupan).
2. Menjamin terpeliharanya keanekaragaman sumber genetik dan tipe-tipe ekosistemnya sehingga
mampu menunjang pembangunan, ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang memungkinkan
pemenuhan kebutuhan manusia yang menggunakan sumberdaya alam hayati bagi kesejahteraan
(pengawetan sumber plasma nutfah).
3. Mengendalikan cara-cara pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam hayati sehingga terjamin kelestariannya.
Akibat sampingan penerapan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang kurang bijaksana, belum
harmonisnya penggunaan dan peruntukan tanah serta belum berhasilnya sasaran konservasi secara
optimal. baik di darat maupun di perairan, dapat mengakibatkan timbulnya gejala erosi genetik,
polusi dan penurunan potensi sumberdaya alam hayati (pemanfaatan secara lestari).
Tercapainya ketiga sasaran tersebut, tergantung kepada seluruh instansi dan peran serta aktif seluruh
rakyat Indonesia. Oleh karena itu dalam pelaksanaan upaya konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati laut di
Indonesia, diperlukan adanya suatu koordinasi mulai dari perencanaan, pelaksanaan dan pengawasan
yang dilaksanakan antar instansi-instansi terkait, dengan melibatkan pula lembaga ilmiah dan
organisasi masyarakat agar tercapainya suatu sistem pengelolaan yang terpadu, serasi, efektif dan efisien
demi kepentingan pembangunan yang berkelanjutan.
V. KONSERVASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM HAYATI LA UT
Upaya konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia dimaksudkan untuk menjaga agar keberadaan
keanekaragaman sumberdaya alam hayati laut tersebut tidak mengalami kepunahan dan senantiasa siap
untuk sewaktu-waktu dimanfaatkan bagi kesejahteraan umat manusia.
Upaya pelestarian sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia, dilakukan melalui pelaksanaan:
1. Di dalam kawasan konservasi, dilaksanakan dengan upaya-upaya pelestarian jenis sumberdaya alam
hayati laut di dalam habitat aslinya melalui pengelolaan Kawasan Suaka Alam dan Kawasan
Pelestarian Alam.
2. Di luar kawasan konservasi, dilaksanakan melalui upaya pelestarian jenis sumberdaya alam hayati
laut yang dilakukan di luar habitat aslinya, untuk menunjang upaya pelestarian yang dilakukan di
dalam kawasan konservasi laut. Kegiatan ini dilaksanakan melalui langkah-Iangkah seperti:
a. Pemeliharaan jenis sumberdaya alam laut yang mampu berkembang biak di dalam tempat
berpagar (captive breeding) dari jenis-jenis yang terancam punah, melalui upaya penangkaran,
kebun binatang, oseanorium dan sebagainya.
98

Appendix 3
b. Pengawasan dan pengaturan mengenai tindakan-tindakan yang dilakukan terhadap upaya
pelestarian sumberdaya alam hayati laut seperti yang diatur dalam pasal 20 sampai dengan pasal
25 Undang-Undang Nomor 5 Tahun 1990.
c. Mengatur tingkat pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam hayati laut yang terancam punah, melalui
pengawasan terhadap perdagangan dalam negeri dan eksport.
Dalam perdagangan dunia International. Indonesia merupakan salah satu negara yang telah
menandatangani CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna) yang telah diratiflkasi berdasarkan Keputusan Presiden Republik Indonesia Nomor 43 Tanggal 15
Desember 1978, untuk mengatur tata cara lalu-lintas perdagangan flora dan fauna secara International.
Selain dari pada itu, dalam usaha untuk menangani jenis-jenis sumberdaya alam hayati laut yang terancam
punah. Indonesia tidak berdiri sendiri dan selalu mengacu pada suatu Badan Perlindungan Alam se Dunia
atau International for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), yang mempunyai komisi
khusus mengenai jenis flora dan fauna yang terancam punah, dan secara berkala mengeluarkan daftar­
daftar kelangkaan flora dan fauna di seluruh Dunia.
Dalam upaya pelestarian jenis sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia, sampai saat ini telah dilindungi
beberapa jenis sumberdaya alam laut yang terdiri dari mamalia laut, reptil, koral, moluska dan crustacea
(untuk lebih lengkapnya lihat lampiran 1).
VI. KEBIJAKSANAAN DAN UPAYA KONSERVASI DI INDONESIA
Kebijaksanaan yang ditempuh dalam upaya konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati laut di Indonesia, pada
dasamya mengacu pada Pasal 33 UUD 1945 dan Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara, yang meliputi :
1 . Kebijaksanaan Umum :
a. Memantapkan pengelolaan sumberdaya alam hayati laut secara nasional.
b. Peningkatan dan pemantapan data sumberdaya alam hayati laut dalam rangka meningkatkan
kualitas perencanaan baik dalam pembinaan. rehabilitasi, maupun pemanfaatan yang akurat.
c. Pengukuhan kawsan konservasi laut untuk melindungi sumberdaya alam hayati lauL
d. Menjaga keutuhan sumberdaya alam hayati laut melalui tindakan yang bersifat preventif.
e. Perlindungan dan pengamanan kawasan konservasi laut (termasuk sumberdaya alam laut
langka).
f. Peningkatan pengelolaan Taman Nasional Laut secara terarah.
2. Kebijaksaan Operasional :
a. Konservasi sumberdaya alam hayati laut dan lingkungan hidupnya.
b. Perlindungan dan pengamanan hutan (termasuk perlindungan dan pengamanan kawasan
konservasi laut).
Dalam upaya untuk mewujudkan agar semua kebijaksanaan yang telah dicanangkan tersebut dapat
menjadi kenyataan. maka telah ditetapkan upaya-upaya pokok untuk melaksanakan kebijaksanaan
tersebut, yaitu :
1 . Konservasi di dalam kawasan.
2. Konservasi di luar kawasan.
3 . Pembangunan Taman Nasional Laut.
4. Pembinaan Kawasan Konservasi laut.
5. Pengembangan wisata alam laut.
6. Penyuluhan konservasi sumberdaya alam laut.
7. Monitoring Dampak Lingkungan �MONDAL)
8. Perlindungan dan pengamanan kawasan konservasi laut.
9. Pengembangan sarana dan prasarana.
10. Kerjasama dengan berbagai pihak. baik dari dalam negeri maupun dari luar negeri.
99

DAFT AR PUST AKA
Departemen Kehutanan. 1990. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 tahun 1990 Tentang
Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Hayati dan Ekosistenmya. Departemen Kehutanan, Jakarta.
Direktorat Ienderal Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam. 1987. Deskripsi Biota Laut Langka.
Direktorat Pelestarian Alam, Bogor.
Direktorat Penyuluhan Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam. 1991. Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Hayati dan
Ekosistenmya. Direktorat Penyuluhan Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam, Jakarta.
Karya Ilmu. 1993. Ketetapan MPR RI Nomor ll/MPR/1993 tentang GBHN (Garis-Garis Besar Haluan
Negara) 1993 -1998 Beserta Susunan Kabinet Pembangunan VI dan Butir-Butir Pancasila. Karya
Ilmu, Surabaya.
Salm, R.V. 1983. Proposed Marine Protected Areas Policy. IUCN/WWF Conservation for Development
Programme, Bogor.
Soegiarto, A and N. Polunin. 1981. The Marine Environment of Republic of Indonesia. A Report
Prepared for the Government of the RepUblic of Indonesia, under the sponsorship of the IUCN and
the WWF, Bogor.
Suwelo dan Edi Djuharsa. 1988. Biota Laut Langka Dan Telaah Mengenai Manfaat Untuk Bahan Obat
Dan Kosmetika, disampaikan pada Seminar Pemanfaatan Kekayaan Laut untuk Bahan Kosmetika
pada tanggal 26 Nopember 1988 di Jakarta, Direktorat Pelestarian Alam, Bogor.
100

No. Nama DaerahlIndonesla
BINATANG MENYUSUI
(MAMALIA)
1 . Pesut, Lumba-Iumba
2. Paus biru
3. Paus bersisip
4. Paus bongkok
5. Paus (Semua jenis)
BINATANG ME LATA
(REPTIL)
6. Penyu belimbing
7 . Penyu ridel
8. Penyu tempayan
9. Penyu sisik
10 Penyu pipih
KORAL
11. Akar bahar. Koral hitam
MOLUSKA
12 Kima raksasa
13 Kima selatan
14 Kima cina
15 Kima kunia, Lubang
1 6 Kima sisik (Kima seruling)
1 7 Kima kecil
1 8 Kima tapak kuda
(Kima kuku beruang)
19 Triton terompet
20 Kepala kambing
2 1 Troka, susus bundar
22 Batu laga, Siput hijau
23 Nautilus berongga
CRUSTACEA
24 Ketam kelapa
25 Ketam tapak kuda
Nama LatlnlIImlah
Ziphiidae. Dolphinidae
Balaerwptera musculus
B. Physalus
Megaptera rwvaeangliae
Cetacea Order
Dermochelys coriacea
Lepidochelys olivacea
Caretta caretta
Eretmochelys imbricata
Natator depressa
Anliphates spp.
Tridacna gigas
Tridacna derasa
Hippopus porcellanus
Tridacna crocea
Tridacna squamosa
Tridacna maxima
Hippopus hippopus
Charonia tritonis
Cassis cornuta
Trochus niloticus
Turbo marmoratus
Nautilus pompillius
Birgus latro
Tachipleus gigas
101
Appendix 3
Nama Inggrls
Irrawady dolphin
Dolphin. Beaked
whales
Blue whale
Fin whale. common
rorqual
Humpback whale
Whales. (dolphins.
porpoises)
Leatherback turtle
Olive ridley turtle
Loggerhead turtle
Hawksbill turtle
Flatback turtle
Black coral
Giant clam
Southern giant clam
China clam
Saffron coloured
Scaly clam
Small giant clam
Horse hoof
(Bear paw clam)
Triton's thrumpet
Giant helmet shell
Mother of pearl
Green snail
Pearly/Chambered
nautilus
Coconut/Robber crab
Horse shoe crab
Keterangan
Keputusan Mentan
No. 35 /Kpts/urnll/-
1975
Keputusan Mentan
No. 327 /Kpts(urnI-
5/78
Keputusan Mentan
No. 716/Kpts(Um/
10/80
Keputusan Mentan
No. 327 /Kpts(urnI-
5/78
Keputusan Mentan
No. 716/Kpts(UrnI
10/80
Keputusan Menhut
No. 882/Kpts-I1/92
Keputusan Menhut
No.12/Kpts-II/1987

Appendix 3
5.2 Directorate General of Fisheries
KEBUAKAN PENGELOLAAN KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI LAUT
I. PENDAHULUAN
Sekitar 75% dari luas wilayah Indonesia terdiri dari lautan. Di dalam laut yang demikian luas itu
terkandung kekayaan sumber daya alam yang cukup besar nilainya. baik yang berupa sumber daya alam
hayati mmaupun sumber alam non hayati. Para ahli berpendapat bahwa dengan pertumbuhan penduduk
yang demikian pesaat dan sejalan dengan perkembangan teknologi. sumber daya alam laut tersebit di
kemudian hari merupakan tumpuan harapan bagi penduduk untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnnyya dan
mempertahankan eksistensinya.
Kita bersyukur bahwa sub sektor perikanan mempunyai potensi sebagai sumber pertumbuhan baru sektor
pertanian dalam PJPT IT mendatang. Hal ini dilandasi pada kenyataan bahwa se lama PJPT I produksi
perikanan secara keseluruhan berkembang dengan kecepatan rata-rata 4,7% per tahun, sehingga pada
tahun 1991 peoduksi perikanan ini mencapai 3,31 juta ton, bahkan produksi perikanan laut yang
pangsanya sekitar 75%, selama PJPT I naik dengan kecepatan rata-rata 5,6% per tahun.
Dengan tingkat produksi perikanan seperti di atas, sumber daya perikanan yang masih belIum
dimanfaatkan masih cukup besar. Sumber daya perikanan laut yang potensinya sekitar 6,6 juta ton
setahun termasuk perairan ZEE saat ini baru dirnanfaatkan sekitare 36%. Sebagai negara kepulauan yang
memeiliki pantai terpanjang di dunia yakni sekitar 81.000 km, Indonesia juga memeliki potensi sumber
daya budidiaya yang cukup besar. Sumberdaya dimanfaatkan sekitar 32%, bahkan untuk budidaya laut
saat ini relatif baru dalam taraf pengembangan.
Bertambahnya penduduk serta meningkatnya pendidikan dan pendapatan serta kesejahteraan
mansyarakat di masa mendatang, akan membuka peluang pasar bagi hasil perikanan di dalam negeri yang
cukup besar, karena elastisiatas pendapatan terhadap permintaan cukup luas karena laju pertumbuhan
produksi perikanan dunia yang sampai saat inni sebagian terbesar masih berasal dari hasil penangkapan
di laut. dalam tahun-tahun terakhir cenderung mandatar, yakni sekitar 99 juta ton setahun.
Diperkirakan laju pertumbuhan produksi perikanan sebesar 7% per tahun dalam PJPT IT akan dapat
dicapai antara lain melalui:
(1) Peningkatan upaya pengembangan produksi budidaya yang lebih besar di masa yang akan
datang. terrnasuk dui dalarnnya peningkatan pengembangan perikanan dengan prinsip-proinsip
budidaya seperti sea ranching.
(2) Peningkatan bioteknnologi termasuk genetika molekuler dan rekayasa gentika dari sumber
daya hayati laut yang diharapkan akan berperan secara nyata dalam meningkatkan produksi
budidaya laut
(3) Peningkatan berbagai habitat tiruan dan alat bantu pengumpul ikan.
(4) Percepatan pengembangan di wilayah Indonesia Bgaian Tirnur termasuk perairan ZEEI.
(5) Pengembangan perikanan dengan prisnip-prinsip agribisnis.
(6) Perbaikan pengelolaan sumber daya ikan dan lingkungan hidup.
Pengembangan yang mengarah kepada perusakan atau pemanfaatan yang berlebihan terhadap sumber
daya hayati laut ini, tidak dapat dibiarkan begitu saja tetapi harus dicegah agar keberadaan sumber daya
terssebut tetap selamat dan lestari demi kelangsungan pembangunan bangs a dan negara Indonesia pada
masa kini dan masa yang akan datang.
Selanjutnya untuk menjaga agar pemanfaatan sumber daya hayati laut tersebut dapat beralngsung secara
terus menerus, maka diperlukan upaya pengelolaan dan pengembangan sumber daya tersebut secara
berkelanjutan melalui usaha pengendalian pemanfaatan sumber daya ikan secara rsional, serasi dan
seimbang, agar keberadaannya dapat dipertahankan. Dsengan adanya usaha konservasi tersebut
diharapkan dapat mencapai tiga sasaran dari stratefi konservasi sumber daya tersebut yaityu perlindungan
102

Appendix 3
sistem penyangga kehidupan. pengawetan sumber plasma nutfah. dan tingkat pemangaatan secara
rasional dan lestari.
11. LANDASAN HUKUM
Sebagaimana telah disebutkan dalam UUD thaun 1945 pasal 33 ayat 3 bahwa bumi dan air dan kekayaan
alam yang terkandung di dalamnya dikuasai oleh negara dan dipergunakan untuk sebesar-besamya
kemakmuran rakyat. Ketentuan ini merupakan landasan konstitusional dan sekaligus merupakan arah
bagi pengaturan terhdapa hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan sumber daya hayati laut. Selain itu salah satu
tujuan dari Strategi Konservasi Dunia tahun 1980 adalah menetapkan sumber daya hayati laut dan
keanekaragamannya sebagai sistem ekologis dan penyangga kehidupan yang berkelanjutan. Hal ini
juga sejalan dengan makna yang terkandung dalam UUD 1945 tersebut. Oleh karena itu sumber daya
hayati laut dengan keanekaragamannya yang ada di Indonesia, pengelolaannya juga harus berdasarkan
perautaran perundangan yang berlaku.
Landasan hukum yang digunakan sebagai pedoman dalam pengelolaan keanekaragaman hayati laut
adalah sebgao berikut:
Pasal33 UUD 1945
UU RI No. 4 tahun 1982. tentang Ketentuan ketentuan Pokkok Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup
UU RI No. 9 tahun 1983 tentang Perikanan.
VU RI No. 5 tahun 1990 tentang Konservasi Sumber daya Alam Hayati dan Ekosistemnya.
Peraturan Pemerintah RI No. 29 tahun 1986 tentang Analisis Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan
(AMDAL).
Perautan Pemerintah RI No. 20 tahun 1990 tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Air.
Peraturan Pemerintah RI No. 15 tahun 1990 tentang Usaha Perikanan.
Keputusan Presiden RI No. 43 tahun 1978 tanggal 15 Desember 1978 tentang RatifIkasi CITES.
Surat Keputusan Menteri Pertanian yang berkaitan dengan Penetapan Biantang Liar yang dilindungi.
Peraturan Perundangan (Perda, SK Gubemur. SK Kepala Dinas. dll) yang berkaitan dengan
Pengelolaan Keanekaragaman Hayati Laut.
SK Menteri Pertanian No. 237/Kpts/RC. 410/4/1991 tetang Penyempumaan Kriteria Jenis Kegiatan
Dilingkungan Sektor Pertainian Yang Wajib Dilengkapi Dengan Penyajian Infonnasi Lingkungan
(PIL) atau Penyajian Evaluasi Lingkungan (PEL).
SK Menteri Pertanian No. 363/Kpts/RC. 220/6/1989tentang Pedoman Teknis Penyusunan AMDAL
Di Lingkungan Departemen Pertanian.
nI. KEBUAKSANAAN PENGELOLAAN KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI LAUT
3.1 Inventarisasi dan Identifikasi Keanekaragaman Hayati Laut.
Untuk dapat mengetahhui tentang keadaan keanekaragaman hayati laut yang terdapat di perairan
Indonesia, perlu dilakukan inventarisasi dan identifIkasi yang dapat dilakukan dengan cara sebagai
berikut:
a. Menyebar luaskan formulir/daftar isian tentang jenis-jenis sumber daya hayati laut dengan
keanekaragamannya kepada Dinas-Dinas Perikanan daerah maupun instansi-instansi yang ada
kaitannya dengan pengelolaan sumber daya hayati laut.
b. Melakukan pemantauan/pengamatan di lapangan serta wawsancara langsung maupun tidak
langsung dengan nelayan/petani ikan atau pengusaha perikanan yang diharapkan bisa
memberikan informasi/data yang berkaitan dengan keanekaragaman hayati laut.
c. Mengumpullkan data hasil penelitian dan usrvei yang dilakukan oleh lembaga-lembaga
penelitian dan atau perguruan tinggi.
d. Mengumpulkan data statistik yang dapat berasal dari antara lain data statistik perikanan
Indonesia, ekspor impor perikanan. BPEN (perdagangan). lau lintas ikan hidup. ekspor impor
ikan hidup. dU.
e. Mengumpulkan data hasil tangkapan dari Tempat Pendaratan !kan (TPI). perusahaan perikanan.
Stasiun Karantina !kan dan tempat-tempat lainnya yang berkaitan.
103

Appendix 3
Data (informasi) hasil inventarisasi dan indentiflkasi tersebut kemudian dievaluasi untuk mengetahui
tentang jenis-jenis sumber daya hayati laut, keanekaragamannya, distribusi/sebarannya, kadar
populasinya, habitatnya, sifat biologisnya, dU. Dari data tersebut diharapkan dapat dipergunakan
sebgai bahan pertimbangan dalam mengambil langkah-Uangkah kebnijaksanaan bagi pengeloaan
(pemanfaatan dan pelestarian) sumber daya hayati laut dan keanekaragamann ya.
3.2 Usaha Pelestarlan Keanekaragaman Hayatl Laut
Beberapa upaya pelestarian sumber daya hayati laut antara lain dapat ditempuh melalui usaha sebagai
berikut:
a. Usaha Perlindungan
Sesuai dengan bunyi pasal 8 ayat (1) dfari UU RI No. 9 tahun 1985 tentang Perikanan menyebutkan
bahwa "Untuk kepentingan ilmu pengetahuan, kebudayaan atau pelestarian alam perairan, pemerintah
menetapkan jenis sumber daya ikan tertentu yang dillindungi dan/atau lokasi perairan tertentu sebgai
suaka perikanan berdasarkan ciri yang khas jenis sumber daya ikan atau alam periairan termaksud.
Selanjutnya dalam pasal 8 ayat (2) dari UU RI No. 9 disebutkan bahwa "Dalam pengaturan ketentuan
seperti tersebut pada ayat (1) pemerintah dapat menetapkan pembatasan terhadap kegiatan pengakapan
atau pembudidayaan ikan atau kegiatan lainnya di lokasi tersebut.
Dalam kaitannya dengan hal-hal tersebut di atas, pemerintah jauh sebelurnnya telah menetapkan
beberapa jenis sumber daya hayati laut sebagai binatang yang dilindungi, yaitu antara lain:
a) Duyung/Dugong (Dugong dugon) dengan SK Menteri Pertanian No. 32/Kpts!UM{7/1972.
b) Dolphin, Lumba-Iumba Laut (Dolphinidae & Zipridae) dengan SK Menteri Pertanian No.
35/Kpts/UM/l/1975.
c) Penyu Belimbiing (Dermochelys coriacea) dengan SK Menteri Pertanian No.
327/Kpts/UM/5/1978.
d) Paus/Whale (semua jenis), Penyu ride I (Lepidochelys olivacea), Penyu tempayan (Caretla
caretta) dengan SK Menteri PErtanian No. 716/Kpts!UM/1O/1980.
e) Dan beberapa jenis sumber daya hayati laut lainnya.
b. Usaha Budidaya
Dalam upaya pelestarian keanekaragaman hayati laut (sumber plasma nutfah), dapat ditempuh melalui
usaha budidaya yang pada saat sekarang baru mengarah kepada jenis-jenis yang bersifat komersial, baik
itu melaui budidaya tambak maupun budidaya laut. Di negara kita jenis sumber daya hayati laut yang
sudah dibudidayakan adalah jenis-jenis yang hidupnya di daerah dekat pantai, daerah karang dan daerah
estuari seperti misalnya bandeng (Chanos chanis) dan udang windu (Penaeus monodon) melalui budidaya
tambak, !kan Kerapu Bebek (Cromileptes aitivelis), Kerapu karang (Cephalopholis bunac), Kerapu
Balong (Ephinephelus merra), Kerapu Lumpur (Ephinephelus tauvina), Ikan Beronang (Siganus sp.),
!kan Kakap (Lares sp.), Teripang (Holothuria), Rumput laut (Eucheuma sp.) dan beberapa jenis lainnya
melalui budidaya laut
Sedangkan terhadap jenis-jenis sumber daya hayati laut yabg populasinya di alam sudah mulai kritsi,
jarang dan atau langka seperti misalnya ikan terubuk (Hilsa toli), ikanterbang (Cypsilurus
poecilopterus), berbagai jenis penyu, kirna (Tridacna sp.), troka (Trochus niloticus), batu laga (Turbo
marmoratus), dan jenis-jenis lainnya masih belum dilakukan usaha budidaya antara lain disebabkan
karana masih terbatasnya ketersediaan prasarana, pengembangan dan penerapan teknologi yang belum
memadai. kurangnya insentif ekonomi, serta terbatasnya sumber daya manusia yang terampil dan cakap.
3.3 Pemblnaan dan Pengelolaan
Agar supaya sumber daya hayati laut dapat dimanfaatkan secara berkelanjjutan, maka perlu dilakukan
langkah-Iangkah pembuinaan dan pengelolaan melalui pengaturan dan pembatasan penangkapan yang
antara lain meliputi:
104

Appendix 3
1) Pengaturan penangkapan yang diatur dengan suatu ketetapan yang bersifat mengikat dengan tetap
mempertimbangkan kelestarian sumber daya ikan dan azas manfaat
2) Larangan penangkapan ikan dengan menggunakan bahan-bahan kimia berbahaya, bahan peledak.
racun. alat berarus listrik. dan lain-lainnya yang dapat mengganggu kehidupan sumber daya hayati
laut dan ekosistem perairan.
3) Larangan penangkapan sumber daya hayati laut di luar ketentuan-ketentuan yang telah ditetapkan
dalam peraturan-perauturan yang sudah ada, seperti misalnya jenis. ukuran. jumlah ikan. musim
yang telah ditetapkan dan lain-lainnya.
4) Menjaga dan mengendalikan perairan dari gangguan lingkungan per air an seperti misalnya
pencegahan terjadinya erosi. pendangkalan. pencemaran. dan lain-lainnya.
5) Meningkatkan penyuluhan kepada masyarakat/penduduk yang bermukim di sekitar kawasan pantai
untuk tetap menjaga dan melestarikan sumber daya hayati laut dan ekosistemnya.
6) Melakukan koordinasi dengan instansi terkait di daerah dalam melaksanakan pengelolaan.
pembinaan. dan pengawasannya.
7) Dan lain-lainnya.
3.4 Penentuan Kawasan Fishing Ground
Dalam perencanaan pengelolaan sumber daya hayati laut khususnya sumber daya ikan. penentuan
kawasan fishing ground merupakan langkah yang sangat penting. Langkah ini untuk mengetahui dengan
jelas batas-batas wilayah di mana sumber daya ikan yang akan dikelola berada. Dalam menetapkan
kawasan fishing ground yang perlu diperhatikan adalah:
Jenis-jenis ikan yang dimanfaatkan atau berpeluang pengembangan penangkapan.
Geografis perairan.
Migrasi dan penyebaran ikan.
Ukuran dan jenis kapal perikanan.
Ukuran dan jenis alat tangkap.
Peraturan yang sudah ada.
3.5 Penentuan Besarnya Alokasl
Alokasi dalam hal ini adalah mengenai potensi sumber daya ikan yang dapat dimanfaatkan (alokasi
produksi) dan alat tangkap yang dapat diijinkan beroperasi baik jenis maupun jumlahnya (alokasi alat).
Dalam penentuan alokasi ini. hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan aalah sebagai berikut:
Besamya potensi lestari dan jumlah tangkapan yang diperbolehkan.
Penyebaran sumber daya ikan dan musimnya untuk masing-masing perairan.
Perkembangan usaha penangkapan dan produksinya untuk tiap-tiap daerah/propinsi serta target
yang akan dicapai selanjutnya (minimal 5 tahun yang akan datang).
Sedangkan dalam penentuan alokasi upaya penangkapan. baik jumlah maupun jenis alat tangkapannya
harus memperhatikan daya dukung sumber dayanya, jenis alat tangkap dan indeks konversinya serta
tidak menyimpang dari ketentuan peraturan yang ada.
Dalam menentukan alokasi upaya penangkapan ini hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan adalah:
Jenis-jenis ikan dan penyebarannya.
Ukuran ikan yang tertangkap.
Jenis alat tangkap ayng berkembang dan penyebarannya.
Spesifikasi jenis alat tangkap dan produktivitas upaya.
Peraturan-perauturan yang telah ada yang ada kaitannya dengan alat tangkap.
3.6 Pemantauan Gangguan Lingkungan Perairan
105

Appendix 3
Pemantauan terhadap gangguan lingkungan perairan seperti misalnya pencemaran perairan oleh lombah
industri, limbah rumah tangga, pestisida. herbisida, dan bahan-bahan berbahaya lainnya harus dilakukan
secara kontinu guna menjaga kemungkinan tirnbulnya dampak negatif yang tidak diharapkan.
Dengan demikian kelangsungan hidup sumber daya hayati laut dan keseimbangan ekosistem perairan
dipertahankan.
3.7 Pembangunan Berwawasan Llngkungan
Dengan diterbitkannya Peraturan Pemerintah No. 29 tahun 1986 tentang Analisis Mengenai Darnpak
Lingkungan (AMDAL), maka untuk kegiatan yang diperkirakan menimbulkan dampak penting terhadap
kegiatan yang diperkirakan menimbulkan darnpak penting terhadap lingkungan hidup, wajib dilengkapi
dengan studi Analisis Mengenai Darnpak Lingkungan (AMDAL) . Sebagai tindak lanjuta dari PP. No. 29
tahun 1986 tersebut Departemen Pertanian telah mengeluarkan beberapa peraturan yang berkaitan
dengan pembangunan pertanian yang wajib dilengkapi dengan studi AMDAL, yaitu :
a. SK. Menteri Pertanian No. 327/Kpts/RCAI0/4/1991 tentang Penyempumaan Kriteria Jenis
Kegiatan Dilingkungan Sektor Pertanian yang wajib dilengkapi dengan Penyajian Informasi
Lingkungan (PIL) atau Penyajian Evaluasi Lingkungan (PEL).
b. SK. Menteri Pertanian No. 363/Kpts/RC.220/6/1989 tentang Pedoman Teknis Penyusunan AMDAL
Dilingkungan Departemen Pertanian.
Kemudian beberapa kegiatan di sub sektor perikanan yang wajib dilengkapi dengan studi AMDAL antara
lain :
1) Prasarana Pendaratan !kan
a. Pangkalan Pendaratan!kan (PPI)
b. Pelabuhan Perikanan.
2) Budidaya
a. Introduksi Sumberdaya!kan Jenis Baru
b. Kerang Mutiara
c. Rumput Laut
d. Jaring apung
e. Pensystem
f. Metoda tancap
g. Tambak pada lahan yang tanpa membuka hutan mangrove, menggunakan teknologi intensif
atau semi intensif dengan luas 5 Ha atau lebih.
h. Setiap pembangunan tambak pada lahan hutan mangrove.
3) Pasca Panen Perikanan
a. Industri pengolahan ikan tradisional dengan kapasitas 5 ton atau lebih perhari.
b. Usaha pengolahan ikan modem/maju seperti unit pengolahan ikan di atas kapal, cold storage.
3.8 Penyuluhan kepada masyarakat
Meningkatkan penyuluhan kepada masyarakat/penduduk ten tang perlunya perlindungan dan pelestarian
terhadap sumberdaya hayati laut dan ekosistemnya. Kegiatan penyuluhan ini harus dilakukan sebagai
salah satu tugas pokok dari instansi pengelola yang terkait dengan sumberdaya hayati laut (ikan),
dengan segala daya dan keterbatasan yang ada melalui jajaran organisasinya yang ada di daerah-daerah.
Hal ini dapat dilaksanakan melalui petugas Penyuluh Perikanan Sarjana (PPS) dan Penyuluh Perikanan
Non Sarjana (PPnS) serta bekerjasama dengan instansi terkait baik ditingkat pus at maupun daerah dan
lembaga swadaya masyarakat.
106

3.9 Koordlnasl Pengelolaan
Appendix 3
Dalam upaya mengatasi masalah gangguan lingkungan perairan dan sumberdaya hayati laut diperlukan
adanya koordinasi yang lebih terpadu antara instansi terkait baik ditingkat pusat maupun daerah,
khususnya instansi yang langsung berkepentingan dengan masalah tersebut harus melakukan langkah­
langkah penanggulangannya melalui upaya peningkatan kerjasama lintas sektoral terutarna dengan
aparat penegak hukum dalam rangka "Law inforcement" dari peraturan perundang-undangan yang ada
terutarna yang menyangkut perlindungan dan pelestarian sumberdaya hayati/keanekaragarnan hayati laut
dan ekosistemnya.
IV. PENUTUP
Program pengelolaan keanekaragarnan hayati laut perlu segera dilakukan karena pada dewasa ini tekanan
semakin bertambah besar dengan meningkatnya aktivitas pembangunan di wilayah pesisir dan lautan
yang cukup pes at. Keanekargaman hayati laut di wilayah Timur Indonesia menjanjikan kesempatan
untuk pengembangan wisata bahari. Tetapi perlu diingat bahwa sukses masa yang akan datang dalarn
memanfaatkan sumber daya hayati laut dan kelangsungan hidup komunitas daerah pesisir dan usaha
komersial yang berhubungan dengan keanekaragarnana hayati laut akan tergantung dari kelangsungan
hidup sumber daya hayati laut itu sendiri.
Oleh karena itu. sumber daya hayati laut beserta keanekaragarnannya dapat dimanfaatkan secara optimal
dan lestari maka diperlukan adanya pengendalian pemanfaatan terhadap sumber daya tersebut secara
rasional dengan tetap memeprhatikan daya dukung lingkungannya.
Akhirnya pada kesempatan ini karni menyampaikan himbauan kepada semua pihak, agar dalam
pemanfaatan sumber daya hayati laut harus dilakukan secara bijaksana, rasional, serasi, seimbang, dan
lestari dengan tetap berpedoman pada kaidah-kaidah pelestarian sumber daya alam dan lingkungannya
serta di dalam merencanakan suatu proyek pembanungan haruslah berwawasan lingkungan yang
disesuaikan dengan daya dukung lingkungan, agar supaya pemanfaatan sumber day a hayati laut dan
pelaksanaan pemabngunan ini dapat berkelanjutan.
5.3. Directorate General of Tourism
KEBIJAKAN INSTITUSI PARIWISATA TERHADAP PENGELOLAAN
KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI LA UT
I. PENDAHULUAN
Indonesia adalah merupakan negara kepulauan dan berik1irn tropis yang memiliki sumber daya alarn yang
besar potensinya untuk pengembangan kepariwisataan nasional, baik berada di daratan maupun perairan.
Sumber daya alam yang telah dimanfaatkan untuk kegiatan pariwisata khususnya wisata tirta adalah
wilayah perairan/laut, dim ana Indonesia memiliki daya tarik adalah wilayah perairan I laut, dimana
Indonesia memiliki daya tarik yang sang at besar karena mempunyai keanekaragarnan kekayaan sumber
daya laut dan pantai, seperti hutan mangrove yang terbentang di pantai, kawasan rumput laut dan terumbu
karang yang sangat indah.
Melihat kepada potensi yang kita miliki tersebut, Indonesia mempunyai potensi dan peluang yang besar
untuk menjadikan sebagai Tujuan Wisata Internasional di bidang wisata alam termasuk wisata
tirta/bahari. Dengan demikian maka sumber daya alarn tersebut dapat diupayakan untuk memperoleh
manfaat ekonomi melalui pariwisata.
Kegiatan usaha wisata tirta pada dasarnya adalah memberikan pelayanan kepada wisatawan, baik
nusantara maupun mancanegara untuk dapat menikmati keindahan dan keunikan objek dan day a tarik
wisata alarn di laut. Hal tersebut harus dilaksanakan secara terarah dan dikelola dengan baik agar dapat
menunjang upaya pelestarian alam khususnya keanekaragaman sumber daya hayati laut serta
ekosistemnya.
Upaya pengembangan wisata tirta yang berwawasan lingkungan merupakan kebijakan nasional yang
perlu dilaksanakan secara konsisten, oleh karena disadari bahwa pengembangan wisata tirta disarnping
107

Appendix 3
mempunyai dampak positif juga menimbulkan dampak negatif terhadap lingkungan, seperti menurunnya
mutu lingkungan, kerusakan terumbu karang dsb.
Untuk mengantisipasi kemungkinan terjadinya dampak negatif terse but telah ditetapkan peraturan dan
pengawasan kegiatan di bidang wisata tirta, sedangkan untuk pemanfaatan di kawasan pelestarian
alam/taman laut telah diadakan koordinasi dalam wadah kerjasama antara Ditjen PHP A dengan Ditjen
Pariwisata dalam rangka keterpaduan dalam perencanaan dan pemanfaatan kawasan sebagai Objek dan
Daya Tarik Wisata Alam/firta.
11. KEBIJAKAN PENGEMBANGAN WISATA TIRTA
1 . Dalam upaya membina dan mengembangkan kegiatan wisata tirtalbahari di Indonesia Yang
menunjang pelestarian sumber daya laut, baik terumbu karang (Taman Laut) maupun keanekaragaman
sumber hayati kelautan lainnya, melalui Keppres No. 60 Tahun 1992 Pemerintah telah menetapkan
Dekade Kunjungan Indonesia 1991 -2000 dan tahun 1993 ini merupakan Tahun Lingkungan Hidup.
Tujuannya adalah agar pemanfaatan sumber daya alam untuk kegiatan pariwisata dan kegiatan
pembangunan sektor lainnya harus memperhatikan keseirnbangan antara kepentingan pembangunan
dengan pelestarian sumber daya alam hayati dan ekosisternnya. Hal ini perlu diperhatikan karena
pembangunan pariwisata mempunyai hubungan tirnbal balik dengan lingkungan, yakni lingkungan alam
baik daratan maupun perairan merupakan bahan baku atau sumber daya bagi tirnbulnya kegiatan
pariwisata dan rusaknya sumber daya alam atau menurunnya mutu lingkungan akan menurunkan kualitas
variasi kegiatan pariwisata.
2. Untuk menghindarkan dari kemungkinan kerusakan lingkungan sumber daya laut yang berasal dari
kegiatan pariwisata. telah ditetapkan Keputusan Menteri Parpostel No. KM.97/HK.103/MPPT-87
yang kemudian diperbaharui dengan Keputusan Menteri Parpostel No. KM.13/pW.I02/MPPT-93
tentang Ketentuan Usaha Wisata Tirta.
Kegiatan wisata tirtalbahari yang diatur dalam Keputusan tersebut meliputi:
Usaha marina yang merupakan usaha penyediaan sarana dan prasarana tambbat kapal pesiar (yacht).
Usaha wisata selam
Usaha rekreasi air. seperti: selancar angin. game fishing, para sailing, sekuter air, power boating,
dU.
Dengan peraturan tersebut pengusaha wisata tirta diwajibkan memelihara lingkungan laut dalam upaya
melestarikan lingkungan hidup dan mematuhi semua peraturan perundangan yang berkaitan dengan
pelestarian lingkungan.
Disamping itu telah diterbitkan Keputusan Menteri Parpostel No. KM89/UM.I01/MPPT-88 tentang
Pemandu Keselamatan Wisatawan. yang mewajibkan setiap usaha wisata tirta untuk menyediakan
pemandu wisata untuk setiap kegiatan penyelaman agar dapat mencegah terjadinya kecelakaan bagi
wisatawan dan kerusakan terumbu karang.
Ill. STRATEGI NASIONAL PENGELOLAAN KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI LAUT.
Kegiatan wisata tirta/bahari pada dasarnya adalah pemanfaatan sumber daya laut, baik yang berlokasi di
daerah pantai maupun di laut untuk berbagai kegiatan wisata dan olah raga oleh para wisatawan.
Dalam kaitan ini maka pengembangan wisata tirta harus selalu memperhatikan dan terkait dengan
pengelolaan keanekaragaman hayati laut, yang antara lain adalah:
1 . Melindungi ekosistem terumbu karang
a. Mewajibkan para pengusaha wisata tirta mematuhi peraturan-peraturan ten tang pemeliharaan
sumber daya alam seperti yang dipersyaratkan.
b. Bekerjasama dengan instansi lain yang mempunyai kewenangan yaitu untuk kawasan
pelestarian alam/taman laut, Ditjen PHPA, Dep. Kehutanan. Sedangkan di luar kawasan adalah
Pemda atau instansi terkait lainnya seperti Dep. Perhubungan.
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Appendix 3
c. Untuk meningkatkan keselarnatan wisatawan dan perlindungan terhadap terumbu karang dan
biota laut lainnya, Ditjen Pariwisata telah mengadakan kursus-kursus/pelatihan Life
Guard/Pemandu Wisata selarn dB.
d. Dalarn upaya mengembangkan sistim terkendali di dalarn kawasan konservasi telah dilibatkan
pihak swasta untuk mengelola kegiatan pariwisata di beberapa lokasi. Pihak swasta diberikan
izin pengusahaan kegiatan pariwisata alarn oleh Dep. Kehutanan dengan rekomendasi Ditjen
Pariwisata dan Gubemur KDH. Tk.1.
2. Pelaksanaan Karnpanye Nasional Sadar Wisata kepada semua golongan masyarakat di seluruh
Indonesia dan kegiatan bimbingan masyarakat mengenai Sapta Pesona, antara lain telah
memberikan penerangan dan penyuluhan akan arti pentingnya pariwisata terhadap pelestarian
lingkungan hidup serta perlindungan terhadap flora dan fauna terutarna yang langka dan dilindungi.
3. Peningkatan sosio ekonomi masyarakat dengan melalui pengembangan kawasan-kawasan
pariwisata yang berlokasi di kawasan pantai, seperti : BTDC Bali, LTDC, Lombok, MTDC Manado,
dU. akan memberikan darnpak positif bagi peningkatan sosial ekonomi masyarakat setempat
terutarna di wilayah pesisir seperti tersedianya lapangan kerja dan lapangan usaha baru, sehingga
mereka tidak merusak lingkungan alarn dan laut sekitarnya guna memenuhi kebutuhan hidup mereka
sehari -hari.
IV. PENUTUP
Kebijakan Pemerintah dalarn pemanfaatan sumber daya alarn untuk pengembengan pariwisata adalah
sejalan dengan kebijakan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup yang bertujuan melindungi sumber daya alarn
hayati serta ekosistemnya narnun dapat dimanfaatkan bagi wisatawan untuk menikmati keindahan,
keunikan dan keanekaragarnan jenis-jenis flora dan fauna yang kita miliki.
Kegiatan wisata tirta/bahari sebagai salah satu kegiatan parlwlsata yang memanfaatkan potensi
keanekaragarnan hayati laut diharapkan dapat menunjang kegiatan-kegiatan pengelolaan lingkungan
kelautan termasuk pengelolaan hutan mangrove. terumbu karang clan sumber day a hayati laut lainnya.
5.4 Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI)
KETERLIBATAN LEMBAGA ILMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIA DALAM MASALAH
KEANEKA-RAGAMAN HAYATI LA UT
PENDAHULUAN
Keaneka-ragarnan Hayati merupakan gejala biologis yang terjadi di alarn yang melibatkan berbagai jenis
tumbuh-tumbuhan dan hewan yang hidup di dalarn suatu ekosistem dan yang kehadirannya memerlukan
persyaratan-persyaratan khusus. Jika salah satu persyaratan atau beberapa persyaratan atau bahkan
semua persyaratan itu diganggu atau dimusnahkan maka akan terjadi pula gangguan terhadap gejala alarn
ini.
Semua gejala biologis ini beserta permasalahannya merupakan objek kajian ilmiah dan menjadi
perhatian di kalangan ekologiwan dan biologiwan saja. Tingkat ke-anekaragarnan hayati banyak
dikaitkan dengan tingkat kematangan ekosistem. Perubahan keaneka-ragarnan hayati yang menurun
lebih dikaitkan dengan gejala-gejala alarn yang mempengaruhi seperti perubahan iklim yang keras.
kekeringan, bencana alarn seperti gempa. tzunarni dsb.
Sejak manusia menyadari manfaat kehadiran tumbuh-tumbuhan dan binatang atau disebut biota bagi
kehidupan mereka sejak itu pula carnpur-tangan manusia merarnbah ke gejala biologis tersebut Upaya­
upaya manusia untuk memanfaatkan sumberdaya hayati khususnya clan sumberclaya alarn umurnnya
dengan menggunakan kebolehan teknologisnya sering melupakan daya dukung sumber tersebut
sehingga akhirnya mereka terjebak di dalarn kelangkaan sumberdaya dan kesulitan untuk memenuhi
kebutuhan mereka yang makin hari makin bertarnbah.
Sadar akan kekeliruan mereka akhirnya mulailah mereka mempersoalkan keutuhan sumberdaya itu. Dari
sinilah mulai mekamya permasalahan keaneka-ragarnan hayati. bukan saja terbatas pada kajian ilmiah
109

Appendix 3
tetapi sudah merambah ke segala aspek kehidupan, mulai dari ekonomi, sosial, budaya sampai ke
politik. Masalah keaneka-ragaman hayati bukan menjadi beban nasional tetapi sudah mendunia.
Di Indonesia. perhatian terhadap masalah keaneka-ragaman hayati cukup besar. Upaya untuk
memecahkan masalah ini sudah dilakukan sejauh yang menyangkut biodata darat. Masalah keaneka­
ragaman hayati akuatik, khususnya laut sangat sedikit mendapat perhatian. Oleh sebab itu lokakarya
yang diselenggarakan sekarang ini merupakan suatu peristiwa yang sangat penting, sehingga perlu
ditindak lanjuti ke arah yang lebih konkrit.
Keterlibatan LIPI dalam pennasalahan ini akan menyangkut beberapa bidang kegiatan sesuai dengan
tugas dan fungsinya sebagai lembaga IPTEK.
KEPUNAHAN JENIS
Keaneka-ragaman hayati dapat dipertahankan keutuhannya jika biota yang menciptakannya mampu
mempertahankan kehadirannya dalam jumlah maupun jenis sepanjang masa. Dalam sejarah
perkembangan makhluk hidup hal demikian tidak terjadi.
Sebanyak 500 juta macam (jenis?) tumbuh-tumbuhan, binatang dan jasad renik telah mendiami bumi kita
sejak dulu kala. Sekarang tercatat sekitar 5 sampai 10 juta jenis, dua pertiga dari jumlah ini hidup di
daerah tropis. Iadi 490 juta jenis lainnya punah (CHIRAS 1988). Kepunahan jenis ini merupakan
kenyataan evolusi kehidupan. Kepunahan ini semula terjadi secara alami. Akan tetapi sejak manusia
memanfaatkan sumberdaya hayati dan lingkungan dengan menggunakan kecanggihan teknologi
kepunahan jenis anthropogenik terjadi dengan pesat.
Kepunahan alami jauh lebih lambat terjadinya daripada kepunahan yang diakibatkan oleh ulah manusia
dan kepunahan alami berbeda dari kepunahan anthropogenik dalam dua hal:
1 . Selama berjuta-juta tahun jenis-jenis biota purba berevolusi menciptakan jenis-jenis baru. Sehingga
banyak dari 490 juta biota yang punah itu digantikan oleh keturunan mereka. Sebaliknya kepunahan
anthropogenik terjadi langgeng. Ienis-jenis yang punah akibat ulah manusia tidak akan
tergantikan. Mereka hilang untuk selama-lamanya.
2. Kecepatan kepunahan alami sangat bervariasi antara suatu jenis atau kelompok jenis dengan jenis
atau kelompok jenis lainnya. Walaupun secara alarni beberapa jenis memang benar-benar punah
misalnya karena perubahan iklim yang keras, tetapi kecepatan kepunahannya masih jauh lebih
lambat daripada kepunahan oleh manusia. Sebagai gambaran, kini satu jenis Vertebrata menjadi
punah setiap sembilan bulan oleh perbuatan manusia dibandingkan dengan kepunahan alami yang
terjadi untuk satu jenis setiap 1000 tahun. Apalagi jika ditembahkan di dalarnnya serangga tumbuh­
tumbuhan dan jasad renik pada Vertebrata maka kecepatan kepunahan menjadi satu jenis setiap hari.
Jika penduduk dunia makin bertambah dan bangsa-bangsa di dunia ini terus menerus merusak dan
menghancurkan habitat satwa-satwa liar dengan kecepatan seperti yang digambarkan di atas, maka
banyak ahli meramalkan bahwa rata-rata 40.000 sampai 50.000 jenis akan dihancurkan setiap tahun
untuk kurun waktu 20 tahun. Menjelang akhir dasawarsa 80, maka setiap jam akan punah satu jenis
biota. Sungguh mengerikan.
FAKTOR·FAKTOR PENYEBAB KEPUNAHAN
Ada tujuh faktor penyebab kepunahan jenis, karenanya kerusakan keaneka-ragaman jenis. Masing­
masing faktor mempunyai kadar pemusnah yang berbeda.
1 . Pengubahan Habitat
Faktor ini merupakan pemunah yang paling penting. Peradaban manusia telah banyak mengubah habitat
berbagai biota menjadi real-estate. dam, lapangan terbang dU. Pengubahan habitat yang nyata dapat
disaksikan adalah yang terjadi di hutan hujan tropis. Terumbu karang, estauri, dan lahan basah
merupakan habitat kritis dan yang sangat peka terhadap perubahan demikian. Keadaan habitat-habitat
ini sekarang mengalami mutu menurun. Kepunahan jenis akibat faktor ini mencapai 30% dari seluruh
faktor pemunah.
110

2. Perburuan biota untuk komersial, olah raga dan pang an
Appendix 3
Perburuan binatang untuk diperdagangkan merupakan ancaman terbesar bagi binatang buruan. Contoh di
laut yang paling terkenal adalah perburuan ikan paus (whale). Sepanjang sejarah orang memburu ikan
paus untuk berbagai bahan perdagangan sedemikian rupa sehingga mereka hampir punah. Beruntunglah
bahwa International Whaling Commission telah mencegah kegiatan ini sehingga industri perikanan
paus diubah menjadi industri baru yang berupa "Whale watching" atu nonton paus. Ternyata industri ini
tidak kalah dalam menghasilkan revenue.
Tabel 1 menunjukkan betapa menakutkannya akibat perikanan paus ini.
Tabel 1. Populasi ikan paus, dulu dan sekarang.
Jenis
Blue
Bowhead
Fin
Gray
Humpback
Minke
Right
Sei (termasuk Bryde)
Sperm
Jumlab sebelum ada perikanan paus
166.000
54.680
450.000
15.000-20.000
119.000
250.000
50.000
108.000
1.377.000
(Chiras 1988 menurut Center for Environmental Education 1985)
Perikanan sekarang
7.500-15.000
3.600-4.100
105.000-122.000
13.450-19.200
6.900-10.500
130.000-150.000
3.000
36.500-54.700
982.300
Faktor ini menyebabkan 39% kepunahan. Perubahan untuk olah raga menyebabkan 12% dan perburuan
untuk makan menyebabkan 6% kepunahan/
c. Memasukkan jenis biota asing
Jenis biota asing yang diperkenalkan ke suatu habitat secara sengaja atau tidak telah banyak
menimbulkan kepunahan jenis endemik atau jenis asli habitat tersebut. Sebagai contoh, jenis pinus
Australia yang ditanam di pantai pasir untuk hiasan akhirnya telah merusak pantai ini sehingga penyu
tidak lagi dapat bertelur di situ. Kepunahan oleh faktor ini mencakup 16%.
d. Pengendalian hama dan penyakit
Penggunaan DDT dan pestis id a lain telah mengakibatkan punahnya banyak jenis serangga. Burung­
burung yang makan makanan mengandung pestisida mengakibatkan telumya mengalami kelainan.
Faktor ini mengakibatkan 7% kepunahan.
e. Pengumpulan untuk Kebun binatang, hobi dan penelitian
Banyak jenis tumbuhan dan binatang dikumpulkan untuk kepentingan-kepentingan tersebut di atas.
Banyak hobbyist yang mengumpulkan keong dan kerang tanpa mengindahkan kelangkaan jenis.
Banyak jenis-jenis langka yang menjadi buruannya. Kebun binatang juga memburu binatang untuk
kepentingan tontonan. Sekarang usaha penangkaran binatang di dalam kebun binatang atau tempat lain
banyak membantu melestarikan jenis. Tapi tanpa upaya ini maka faktor di atas akan mengakibatkan
kepunahan. 5% dari kepunahan jenis diakibatkan oleh faktor ini.
f. Pencemaran
Faktor ini secara langsung atau tidak telah pula mengakibatkan kepunahan jenis karena merusak habitat
maupun membunuh biota. Tetapi pencemaran hanya mengakibatkan 1 % kepunahan.
g. Tahyul
Tahyul juga menjadi faktor penyebab kepunahan. Kepunahan akibat faktor ini mencapai 2%.
Ketujuh faktor tersebut perlu mendapat perhatian terutama yang paling banyak menyebabkan kepunahan
jenis, dalam memecahkan masalah keaneka-ragaman hayati laut
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Appendix 3
POTENSI DAN KETERL lBATAN LEMBAGA ILMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIA
DALAM PROGRAM KEANEK A-RAGAMAN HAYATI LA UT
Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (UPI) merupakan lembaga non-departemen yang mempunyai tugas
dan fungsi melakukan litbang, pemasyarakatan IPTEK, pengembangan dan pembinaan tenaga dan sarana
ilmiah dan memberi masukan kepada pemerintah untuk perumusan kebijaksanaan.
Tiga komponen utama dari potensi UPI yang dapat dilibatkan dalam program keaneka-ragaman hayati
laut adalah (1) tersedianya tenaga peneliti terutama ahli taksonomi; (2) Koleksi referens, museum
zoologi dan herbarium; (3) sarana dan prasarana penelitian; dan (4) data-base.
1. Kini di Puslitbang Oseanologi dan Puslitbang biologi terdapat ahli taksonomi atau peneliti yang
mampu melakukan kegiatan penelitian taksonomi hampir di semua kelas biota laut, dari tumbuh­
tumbuhan, hewan sampai jasad renik.
2. Koleksi biota darat dan laut terdapat di Puslitbang Biologi (P3B-UPI) di Bogor dan Puslitbang
Oseanologi (P30-UPI) di Jakarta yang tersirnpan di Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Herbarium
dan di Balitbang Biologi dari P30-UPI.
Di Herbarium Bogoriense tersimpan spesimen sebanyak 2 juta lembar termasuk "type specimen".
Di Museum Bogor tersimpan:
5000 nomor koleksi Crustacea yang mewakili 200 jenis darat, air tawar dan laut;
32.500 nomor koleksi Mollusca yang mewakili 2500 jenis darat, air tawar dan laut;
10.000 nomor koleksi Pisces yang mewakili 600 jenis air tawar dan laut; dan
11.000 nomor koleksi Reptilia dan Amphibia mewakili 500 jenis.
Di Reference Collection Biota Laut P30-UPI tersimpan jenis-jenis Anthozoa dan Hydrozoa (termasuk
karang), Crustacea, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Pisces dan Algae seluruhnya berjumlah 3550 species.
Selain itu juga tersimpan 99 jenis Mangrove dan sebangsanya.
3. Di P3B-UPI dan P30-UPI tersedia fasilitas identiflkasi dan penelitian taksonomi dan ekologi yang
cukup memadai berupa laboratorium beserta peralatannya dan kapal penelitian yang mampu
menangani penelitian keaneka-ragaman hayati laut
4. Pusat Data Kelautan terdapat di P30-UPI yang terus dikembangkan dan dimanfaatkan antaranya
untuk data-base keaneka-ragaman hayati laut.
Dengan kekayaan koleksi biota yang terdapat di P3B-UPI, UPI telah bertekad untuk membentuk
"Jaringan Nasionallnformasi Keaneka-ragaman Hayati". Tekad ini sejalan dengan rencana UPI untuk
mendirikan "Life Science Center" (PUSPITEK ILMU HA YAT) di Cibinong.
Untuk tujuan di atas, kini sedang giat-giatnya diambil langkah-Iangkah yang menuju ke sana, terutama
dengan telah dicapainya kesepakatan dalam Indonesia-Japan-US Biodiversity Conservation Program
beberapa waktu yang lalu, maka realisasi Jaringan Informasi tersebut menjadi semakin nyata. Adapun
strategi pencapaian tujuan yang dilakukan pada saat ini adalah:
a. Identiflkasi pemilik data, status dan macam penggunaannya;
b. Identiflkasi pengguna dan macam informasi keaneka-ragaman hayati;
c. Identiflkasi mutu informasi keaneka-ragaman hayati; dan
d. Memilih sistem jaringan yang tepat.
Disamping itu UPI telah pula melibatkan ilmuwannya untuk aktif duduk dalam kepanitiaan keaneka­
ragaman hayati (termasuk laut) yang dikoordinasikan oleh Kantor Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup
(dulu KLH) dan menyusun konsep kebijaksanaan Nasional mengenai Keaneka-ragaman hayati, darimana
semestinya konsep kebijaksanaan keaneka-ragaman hayati laut diturunkan dan dikembangkan.
Tiga Puslitbang yang kegiatannya terkait dengan masalah keaneka-ragaman hayati adalah Puslitbang
Oseanologi di Jakarta, Puslitbang Biologi di Bogor dan Puslitbang Bioteknologi di Cibinong yang
mampu menangani penelitian tentang plasma nutfah dan Puslitbang Limnologi di Bogor. Dalam hal ini
112

Appendix 3
Puslitbang Oseanologi tentunya akan melibatkan diri di garis paling depan dalam program Keaneka­
ragaman Hayati Laut.
Dalam konsep Strategi Nasional Kegiatan Pengelolaan Keaneka-ragaman Hayati Laut yang disiapkan
untuk lokakarya ini, UPI jelas-jelas sudah tercantum sebagai lembaga yang berperan serta dalam
sebagian besar komponen kegiatan baik yang tergolong dalam kebijaksanaan "Selamatkan". "Pelajari"
maupun "Manfaatkan secara lestari".
Penting untuk diperhatikan agar dalam melibatkan UPI dan lembaga-Iembaga lain ada pembagian tugas
yang jelas dengan koordinasi yang rapi sehingga tidak terjadi tumpang tindih. Masalah biaya juga hams
dipecahkan dan perencanaan anggaran biaya kegiatan dibuat sematang-matangnya, agar nantinya tidal<
timul pelaksanaan yang rancu dan tidak efisien.
113

REFERENCES
Chiras, 0.0. 1988. EnvironmenJal Science: A framework for decision making. Singapore: Binyamin/
Cummings Publishing.
114

Appendix 3
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Term Definition
Anthropocentric Values or benefits as viewed by man for man's purposes.
Bioactive Chemicals either manufactured or derived from plants or animals which have
effects on living organisms. This is usually used to describe extracts of plants
which are useful as drugs, insecticides, medicines etc. Many marine organisms
produce poisons which may kill human disease organisms.
Biodiversity The variety of plants, animals and other living organisms which make up a
geographical area.
Biota The flora and fauna of a region.
Biotechnology The development, acquisition and use of bioactive materials from organisms.
Coastal Communities Communities living on the coast or near the sea, and usually dependent upon the
sea (marine habitats and organisms) for part or all of their livelihood.
Coastal Part of the marine environment close to the shore. This area is particularly well
known for mangrove forests, fringing reefs and seagrass meadows.
Coastal Zone This is the area beside the sea and includes marine areas. The coastal zone is often
referred to in the context of development and urbanization.
Coral Reefs The living structures made up of dead and living coral animals (Hydrozoa and
Polyzoa). There are several types of corals-some are hard and some are leathery.
Ecosystems Ecological systems formed by the interaction of coacting organisms and their
environment (=biosystems).
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment. Studies done before a development project is
initiated in order to examine the possible future effects of the project on the
environment.
Endemic Plants or animals found in restricted areas.
Ex-Situ Outside of nature e.g., ex-situ conservation is that in parks, zoos etc., (used by
some in Indonesia to mean outside of existing conservation areas).
Fauna The animals of a region.
Flora The plants of a region.
Geographical A database system which records data relative to positions on a map allowing
Information Systems spatial comparisons and analysis.
In-Situ Within nature (used by some in Indonesia to mean inside existing conservation
areas).
Habitat The locality or external environment in which a plant or animal lives.
Hierarchical Systems A system in which lower, more specific levels are included with higher more
general levels.
Mangroves Mangroves are flowering plants which live between the sea and the land. Many
have special modifications of their roots to survive immersion, and to their leaves
to enable them to secrete excess salt.
Marine Environments Environments found from the high water tidal heights on land to the deep seas.
These include, but are not limited to: coral reefs, seagrass meadows, mangrove
forests, soft muddy bottoms and open oceans.
Megadiversity Countries which have a megadiversity have a very high proportion of the world's
biodiversity. This means they have a large total number of species and high levels
of endemism. These countries include: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador. Peru, Mexico,
Zaire, Madagascar, Australia, China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield. The maximum calculated catch or harvest which will
not adversely affect the resource.
Organism Living plants, animals. bacteria and viruses.
115

Appendix 3
Parataxonomis/s Taxonomists without conventional training.
Phylum A level of classification used in taxonomy, a primary or high-level division of
plants or animals.
Public Participation The involvement (hopefully voluntary) of the general public in programs.
Seagrass Submerged flowering marine plants which can form dense meadows supporting
juvenile and adult fishes and crustaceans, dugong and marine turtles.
Species a group of interbreeding individuals not interbreeding with another such group; a
detailed level of classification used in taxonomy.
Systematics The hierarchical system used to describe and categorize plants and animals.
TAC Total Allowable Catch. The catch or harvest (usually a total weight) which is
allowed by regulations for the purposes of protecting the future of the resource.
Taxonomy The science of describing plants and animals using a systematic system
116

Appendix 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND AGENCY NAMES
Term Meaning
ADB Asian Development Bank Bank Pembangunan Asia
BAISABRI Army Strategy Intellegence Agency Badan Intelegent Strategis ABRI
BAKOSURTANAL National Coordinating Agency for Badan Koordinasi Survey dan
Survays and Mapping Pemetaan N asional
Balai Budidaya Laut Lampung Marine Culture Centre
Lampung
BANGDA Directorate General of Regional Pembangunan Daerah
Development, Ministry of Home Affairs
BAPEDAL Environmental Impact Management Badan Pengendalian Dampak
Agency Lingkungan
BAPPEDA Regional Management Planning Agency Badan Perencanaan Pengembangan
Daerah
BAPPENAS National Management Planning Agency Badan Perencanaan Pengembangan
Nasional
BPPT Technology Studies and Implementation Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan
Agency Teknologi
ClDA Canadian International Development Badan Pengembangan
Agency Internasional Canada
CITES Convention on International Trade in Konvensi untuk Perdagangan
Endangered Speccies Internasional Flora dan Fauna yang
dilindungi
DEPDAGRI Ministry of Home Affairs Departemen Dalam Negeri
DISHIDROS Hydro-Oceanographic Service of Navy Dinas Hidro Oseanografi TNI-AL
DITJEN Directorate General Direktorat lenderal -
FEZ Exclusive Economic Zone Zona Ekonomi Eksklusif
EMDI Environmental Management and Pengelolaan dan Pengembangan
Development in Indonesia Lingkungan Hidup di Indonesia
GEF Global Environment Fund Dana Lingkungan Hidup Dunia
INBIO National Biodiversity Institute Instituto Nacional Biodiversidad
Lembaga Nasional Biodiversitas
INFIS Institute Fisheries Information System Lembaga Pusat Sistem Informasi
Perikanan
IPB Bogor Institute of Agriculture Institut Pertanian Bogor
IUCN International Union for Nature and Badan Internasional untuk
Natural Resources Pelestarian Alam dan
S umberdayaalam
KIlI Population and the Environment Kependudukan dan Lingkungan
(Ministry of) Hidup
ill Environment (Minstry of) Lingkungan Hidup
LIPI Indonesian Institute of Science Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan
Indonesia
117

Appendix 3
LP3M Institute for the Village and Conununity Lembaga Pengkajian
Development Studies Pembangunan Pedesaan dan
Masyaraka
MREP Marine Resources Evaluation and Pengkajian Evaluasi dan
Planning Perencanaan Sumber Daya Laut
NBMP National Biodiversity Management Program Pengelolaan Sumber daya
Program hayati Nasional
NGO Non-Governmental Organization Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat
NMBIC National Marine Biodiversity Inventory Pusat Pendataan Keanekaragaman
Center (Proposed) Hayati Laut Nasional
P30 Center for Oceanology Reasearch and Pusat Penelitan dan Pengembangan
Development Oseanologi
PemdaDKI Jakarta Municipality Pemerintah Daerah Khusus Ibukota
Perikanan Fishery
Pertanahan Land
HPA Forest Protection and Nature Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian
Conservation Alam
PPA Nature Protection and Conservation Perlindungan dan Pelestarian Alam
RDCO Research and Development Center for Pusat Penelitan dan Pengembangan
Oceanology Oseanologi
REPEUfA Five-Year Development Planning Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun
RIMF Research Institute for Marine Fisheries Pusat Penelitian Perikanan Laut
SmELUI' Campaign to Keep our Coastline and Siar Bersih Laut Indonesia
Beaches Clean
Sub-BKSDA Sub Agency for Conservation of Natural Sub Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya
Resources Alam
TNC The Nature Conservancy Konservasi alam
UNCED United Nations Convention on Badan PBB untuk Konvensi
Environment Development Pengembangan Lingkungan
UNDP United Nations Development Program BOOan PBB untuk Program
Pembangunan
UNEP United Nations Environment Program BOOan PBB untuk Program
Lingkungan
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Social, and BOOan PBB untuk Program
Cultural Organization Pendidikan, Sosial, dan Budaya
WAlliI Indonesia Environment Forum Wahana Lingkungan Hidup
(An NGO Group)
Indonesia
WB World Bank Bank Dunia
WRI World Resources Institute Lembaga Sumber Daya Dunia
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Dana Dunia untuk Kelestarian Alam
118

ApPENDIX 4
MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND INDONESIA
by
Dr. Reg. Watson and Dra. Ida Aju N Purbasari

ApPENDIX 4:
INTRODUCTION
MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND INDONESIA
Or. Reg. Watson. EMDI Advisor Marine Biodiversity Management
Ora. Ida Aju N Purbasari, EMDI Local Advisor Marine Biodiversity Management
ADVISOR'S FINAL PRESENTATION GIVEN AT MARINE BIODIVERSITY MANAGEM ENT
WORKSHOP; JUNE 19TH, 1993 ANCOL, JAKARTA.
Throughout history, man has progressed from the 'Age of the Hunter-Gatherer', to the 'Age of
Agriculture', to the 'Industrial Age', until the present, the 'Information Age'. Countries that have
mastered information technology are prospering. It is believed by many that the next age is that of
'Biotechnology'. Those countries rich in genetic material, those with diverse gene pools, will be the
prosperous nations of tomorrow. These nations will control the raw material for the creation of new
drugs and chemicals. Indonesia is such a nation, for although it occupies only 1.3% of the world's land
area it possesses up to 17% of the total number of species in the world. As 78% of the nation is water, we
can expect Indonesia's abundant and diverse marine resources will undoubtedly increase its share of the
world's biodiversity still further. Whether this biodiversity will ever realise its potential to increase the
prosperity of Indonesia is dependent on how Indonesia manages this important resource now.
It is significant that while many countries are still developing a general strategy for biodiversity,
Indonesia now has a strategy for the management of marine biodiversity. This is a clear indication that
Indonesia has recognised the great value of its marine biodiversity and the importance of its wise
management.
In recognition of the importance of marine biodiversity, and in response to identified threats to this
resource, LH (then KLH) requested that a marine biodiversity management component be included in
Phase 3 of the Environmental Management Development in Indonesia Project (EMDI). Since 1983, this
project, jointly implemented by the Indonesian Ministry of State for Environment, and Dalhousie
University, Halifax. Canada has spent more than C$41 million from the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) on programmes to upgrade environmental management capabilities in
Indonesia.
One of the important objectives of EMDI's marine biodiversity management component was to assist
LH with the coordinated development of a National Strategy and Action Plan for the Management of
Marine Biodiversity.
TilE PROBLEM
Part of the problem of developing a Strategy and Action Plan for the Management of Marine
Biodiversity is overcoming misconceptions which people and agencies have about marine biodiversity
and its management This is the same in Indonesia as anywhere else in the world. We can describe four
levels of appreciation and understanding required for the successful management of marine biodiversity.
FOUR LEVELS OF ApPRECIATION AND UNDERSTANDING :
1. Recognise the importance of biodiversity
2 Recognise the loss of biodiversity and its causes
3. Recognise the importance of marine biodiversity
4. Recognise the importance of all marine habitats
121

1 . RECOGNISE THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
Appendix 4
First we must recognise the importance of biodiversity if we are to be concerned about its wise
management.
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the diversity of living things. The greater the variety of animals
and plants; the greater the biodiversity. Species are dermed as a group of interbreeding individuals which
do not interbreed with another such group. The number of species, and the number of individuals of each
species is used to estimate biodiversity. Biodiversity can vary with location, habitat, season, and other
factors, as well as with the means of estimation.
What Has Biodiversity Done for People?
The easy answer may be that biodiversity maintains life as we know it. This question, however, may be
more difficult to answer than it first appears. Biodiversity is the variety of life, not simply life itself. It
is difficult to separate what use we make of this variety compared to our uses of the plants and animals
that make up this variety. The variety of life has offered people choices, it has offered the opportunity
for survival. If one source of food failed, there was another to take its place. Using a wide variety of
plants and animals has contributed to humans success as a species. From this variety, people have
selected plants and animals which suited his needs, and cultured these. People have found how to use a
wide variety of plants and animals as medicines.
What Can Biodiversity Do for P�ople?
Biodiversity can continue to offer the genetic stock for advances in agriculture and pharmacy. Varieties
of microscopic bacteria can become organic factories producing valuable, even life-saving chemicals or
drugs; other micro-organisms can help clean up pollution such as oil spills.
2 • RECOGNISE TilE Loss OF BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CAUSES
We must recognise that the human species is destroying biodiversity at increasing rates.
What are the Causes of Biodiversity Loss?
While it is recognised that many species have been lost since the beginning of life on earth (it is said
that only 1 % of species exist of those that have ever existed); it is nevertheless now recognised that
human activities are the greatest threat to the biodiversity of terrestrial and marine habitats. In
Indonesia, as elsewhere in the world, coastal and marine areas and their biota are under siege from loss of
habitat, water and air pollution, overuse and overexploitation of coastal and marine species,
introduction of exotic species, and from the potentially catastrophic effects of global climate changes
including ozone depletion and global warming (Beatley, 1991).
3 . RECOGNISE TilE IMpORTANCE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY
We must recognise that although most of us may now identify the great biodiversity associated with
such terrestrial habitats (such as tropical rainforests), and although many recognise the importance of
terrestrial biodiversity, relatively few have an understanding of, or an appreciation for, the biodiversity
of marine environments.
Why are Marine Habitats Important?
Indonesia is located within the largest archipelago in the world (the Malay Archipelago). Indonesia has
over 17,000 islands of which about 6,000 are inhabited (KLH, 1992). About 78% of the nation
comprises water and all 27 provinces have some coastal zone. About 75% of cities exceeding a
population of 100,000 and over 7,000 villages exist along a coastline stretching 81,000 km. In total,
60% of the population (112 million) lives in the coastal zone (BAPPENAS/CIDA 1988).
122

Appendix 4
Marine habitats can support a
biodiversity that is greater than on
land. Terrestrial systems may
support more species, largely
because of the numbers of insect
species, however, marine eco­
systems have a greater number of
higher taxa, and hence a greater
variation between species (Medley
and Gaudian, 1990). Marine
habitats support 28 phyla com­
pared with 14 in freshwater and 11
on land. The marine realm hosts 31
of the world's 32 existing animal
phlya, 14 of which are exclusively
marine (WRI/IUCN/UNEP, 1992)
(Figure 1).
FIGURE 1
Distribution of animal phyla by habitat
(from WRIIIUCNIUNEP, 1992)
Non-Marine (2.4%)"
Marine (33.3%)
Both (64.3%)-"'il
ijij __ "
Indonesia has already been described as a "megadiversity" country and yet much of it marine habitats
have yet to be surveyed. The highest diversity of shallow benthic species in the world occurs in the
tropical Indo-Pacific, followed by the tropical Pacific coast of America (Bames and Hughes, 1982).
Within the Indo-Pacific, the highest diversity is centred on the Indo-Malayan region of which Indonesia
is part. Indonesia's marine habitats support a large proportion of its biodiversity resource and this
proportion is expected to increase when these habitats receive as much study as terrestrial areas. For
example deep-sea benthic fauna appears to have extraordinarily high diversity but this area is largely
unexplored.
Indonesia's marine biodiversity may be the basis of future biotechnology industries. Marine fauna,
particularly sedentary types, often produce chemicals of great scientific and medical interest which may
yield great commercial benefits. These organisms often communicate with each other using these
powerful agents. In some habitats, such as a coral reef, where there is great competition for living space,
these animals and plants use toxic chemicals to gain and defend territory. Many laboratories are
currently testing such chemicals for their ability to kill or inhibit disease organisms and pests. Less
toxic substances are useful as well, the chemical compounds which corals use to protect themselves from
ultraviolet radiation are being developed into new sunscreens.
Marine organisms already contribute significantly to Indonesia's protein requirements but their
diversity is essential to maintaining and advancing important mariculture industries. Access to diverse
wild gene pools has allowed revolutionary advances in the culture of terrestrial plants and animals,
however. if diverse wild stocks are not maintained in marine habitats then similar advances can not be
achieved in mariculture.
Many marine habitats also have great recreational and amenity values. Apart from considerations of
aesthetics, this aspect of marine diversity promises to support many sustainable industries such as
ecotourism which in some areas can replace current destructive practises.
4 • RECOGNISE IMPORTANCE OF ALL MARINE HABITATS
Even those who recognise the importance of marine biodiversity may only associate this with coral
reefs; this is similar to believing that the only terrestrial biodiversity that is worth saving exists in
rainforests.
Which Marine HabitalS are Important?
Coral reefs are undoubtedly amongst the most diverse marine habitats. however. we should not fail to
recognise the importance of other marine habitats such as mangroves, nipah swamp, and seagrasses. A
comparatively few species of plants dominate habitats such as seagrass areas but this is misleading.
This, and the fact that there may be only a small number of adult vertebrate species normally found in
these areas, causes many people, even scientists. to underestimate their importance to the marine
123

Appendix 4
biodiversity. These areas are usually the host to dozens of species of invertebrates, some of which have
commercial significance. In addition, these areas are often critical habitat for the young of many fish
species. Some of these are also important to fisheries. Through the food chain, most species from these
complex communities will either be directly used by humans, or feed species that are. These habitats
may not have great tourist potential. but they are even more important for other purposes. such as the
way in which they stabilise the shoreline, trap sediments, and produce ftrewood.
THE SOLUTION
There are now three widely-accepted goals of biodiversity management (WRI/lUCN/UNEP, 1992).
THREE GOAL5 OF BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT:
1. Save it
2. Study it
3. Use it
1. SAVE IT
Conserve biodiversity for future generations through the use of marine protected areas, supported by
effective enforcement. an informed public. and active community involvement.
(1) Establish appropriate management for all marine environments including mangrove forests,
seagrass meadows and coral reefs. with a time table for achieving the promised increases in the
number and extent of marine conservation areas (30 million hectares before the year 2000).
(2) Enforce regulations controlling all existing and future marine protected areas.
(3) Achieve community awareness (Sosialisai Humum) of the importance of marine biodiversity
management, and secure the support and participation of communities in management
activities.
(4) Develop means of assessing the economic and social value of marine biodiversity. and
develop the policy means to use these values in the planning and AMDAL processes involved
in the management of marine developmenL
(5) Include marine biodiversity in education curriculum.
2. STUDY IT
Study must determine and document the extent and description of biodiversity resources. its value and
uses, the damage caused by human activities, and the means to mitigate this damage.
(6) Actively promote systematic surveys of the nation's marine resources and support the
institutional strengthening necessary for the timely training of marine taxonomists and
parataxonomists.
(7) Develop, update and maintain geographically-based databases of marine resources and
biodiversity which can be used for resource management and planning, and for the utilisation
of material for biotechnology.
(8) Improve capacities of libraries to provide information on marine biodiversity.
(9) Study and document the effects and mitigation of human activities such as pollution on marine
biodiversity.
3. USE IT
Promote ecologically sustainable and equitable use of biodiversity.
124

Appendix 4
(10) Promote ecologically sustainable use of marine genetic materials and products as a means of
offering alternatives to destructive practises of marine harvest now threatening these
resources.
(11) Investigate and develop socio-economic solutions to the misuse of marine biodiversity such as
the blasting of coral reefs.
THE FUTURE
The future of Indonesia's marine biodiversity depends on today's decisions. Plans exist to create an
extensive system of marine protected areas but progress toward this goal is relatively slow. Without an
overall strategy, it will be difficult to ensure that this system of protected areas is large and
comprehensive enough to meet future needs and objectives. The conversion of natural marine habitats is
much more rapid, for example from mangrove forests to fish ponds. It is essential that a balance is
found. Increased food production, full employment, reduced poverty are strong imperatives. These
considerations will undoubtedly continue to play an important role in future management decisions.
More recently, however, there have been new concerns. It is recognised that these artificial habitats do
not support the biodiversity of the original habitat. This is, perhaps, an accepted consequence of all
agriculture. More worrying is the concern that these converted areas are not as productive as the natural
systems which they replace, and that their productivity declines with time.
The Technical Team recognises that the process of Marine Biodiversity Management begins with the
actions that "save it". There may be two basic problems with current marine conservation plans. The
first is that as more and more marine areas are set aside as strict conservation areas, then there is likely
to be increasing resistance from inside and outside the government to slow down the process. It will be
viewed as a process of locking up valuable, much-needed areas of Indonesia; forever denying the access
of coastal communities to the resources they need to prosper. I believe that the key to averting this
problem is integrated, managed use, not strict conservation, of marine areas. Conservation areas do not
accommodate the multiple-use approach. There is a place for strict conservation areas but they will
likely only form a small part of the total marine protected areas. Marine protected areas should be zoned
for various permitted uses including commercial extraction. The views of local communities,
government and industry representatives, as well as information about marine biodiversity management
should all be considered. These zoning plans can be reviewed at intervals and modified as needs and
circumstances change.
The second problem with current marine conservation plans is that they relay too much as enforcement,
and not enough on public education. This is not to say that enforcement is not important. It is generally
accepted that enforcement has to be increased and improved. It is also generally accepted amongst
marine park managers worldwide, that if the public is consulted and particapates in all processes of park
planning, if they are made aware of the value of the park to the community and to them personally, that
the enforcement needs can be minimised. Desperate people will do whatever they can to survive and
prosper. Poverty in coastal communities poses a great threat to conservation plans. Coastal community
development programs must present sustainable alternatives to present destructive practises, and some
of these alternatives must depend upon the existence of marine protected areas, otherwise these areas
will only be seen as a threat to local development plans.
Integral with the process of managing marine biodiversity is the development of marine resource
databases. Surveys of marine protected areas will be required to establish what habitats and species are
under management, and to determine what potential uses of these resources exist. Rapid cursory surveys
of other areas will be required to optimise the selection of future sites in consultation with stakeholders.
Site selection must proceed even if the completion of these surveys is delayed, otherwise rapid coastal
development will remove all natural areas and conservation options.
Information from marine resource databases can have many uses. One important use will be in the
planning and impact assessment processes. For any area, planners should know: what marine habitats,
plant and animal species exist; what are the present uses and commercial potential of these species; and
whether any species are rare or endangered, or whether any habitats have a limited distribution. In this
way, development decisions can be more comprehensive and forward-looking. Bad choices can be
avoided, and sensitive areas left alone or used appropriately.
125

Appendix 4
Indonesia's extensive marine gene pool is highly valued. Through proper managemen t the benefits of
this resource can be used by Indonesia to develop and maintain conservation practises. to encourage the
development of sustainable life styles and industries. and to reorientate people or industries
disadvantaged by conservation initiatives in the short term.
IN CLOSING:
Members of the Teclmical Team recognise that the process of formulating a national strategy is a
dynamic one. The Team is represented by many different agencies. universities and NODs. We could not
agree on everything. We recognise that our distinguished colleges will not likely agree with all that we
have written; that we have made errors and omissions. We welcome your input; in fact, it is an essential
part of the process.
Some strategies have failed in the past. By failure we mean that their ideas have not been adopted and
implemented. We believe that this is not simply a lack of funding. Sometimes recommendations require
very little funding. What they always require is commitment. No one will commit themselves to
someone else's strategy. We can only commit ourselves if it becomes our strategy. That is the process
we are pursuing. This strategy comes from the Teclmical Team but'we want it to be your strategy. To do
this we recognise that it must be adapted to your needs.
We believe the process of having a National Strategy and Action Plan for the Management of Marine
Biodiversity is well under way. Much work. and above all, commitment will be required before the ideas
are implemented. I am very pleased to have been part of the process. I would like to express my sincere
thanks to those who have helped me. I congratulate the Teclmical Team on their achievement.
126

REFERENCES
BAPPENAS/CIDA. 1988. Action Plan for Sustainable Development of Indonesia's Marine and Coastal
Resources. Canadallndonesia Medium Term Planning Support ProjecL
Barnes, R.S.K., and R.N. Hughes. 1982. An Introduction to Marine Ecology. London: Blackwell
Scientific.
Beatley, T. 1991. Protecting Biodiversity in Coastal Environments: Introduction and Overview.
Coastal Management 19(1): 1-19.
KLH. 1992. Indonesian Country Study on Biological Diversity, ed. S. Adisoemarto. Jakarta: KLH.
Medley, P.A.H., and G. Gaudian. 1990. Marine Biological Diversity. A Report to the Overseas
Development Administration. Marine Resources Assessment Group Ltd. London.
World Resources Institute (WRI), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), and United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to
Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably.
127

EMDI Environmental Reports
(Series Editor: Sham a K. Vethamany)
This series documents. in part. the activ;ties of the EMDI Project in Indonesia. Also included in this series are the
results of research undertaken in Indonesia under the EMDI supported Dalhousie University Program. For copies of
individual titles. please write the EMDI Project in Jakarta or Halifax.
1. East Java Water Pollution Manpower Study. prepared 14. The Management of Hazardous Substances in
by Bruce Fraser and Soekander Wiriaatmadja. Indonesia, prepared by Valerie M. Douglas ..
2. PROKASIH: A River Cleanup Program in Indonesia, 15. Environmental Information Systems in Indonesia:
prepared by Jay Nagendran in consultation with Some Considerations for the Ministry of State for
Nabiel Makarim. Population and Environment, prepared by Robert V.
Maher.
3. Development of Water Quality Standards: An
Indonesian Study, prepared by Margaret C. Taylor 16. EIA Procedures and Guidelines in the Department of
and Sri Hudyastuti Sukarsono. Mines and Energy, prepared by JOM A. Villamere
and Naswar Nazruddin.
4. Indonesia Industrial Waste Standards Project,
prepared by SEATEC International, Bangkok. 17. Environmental Statistics in Indonesia: 1, prepared
by Kirk Hamilton, Toto Suastrasuanda, and Bruce
5. Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Wastes: A Mitchell.
Review of the Draft Programs, prepared by Hermien
Roosita and Robert Breeze. 18. Environmental Assessment in the Department of
Industry: Working Guidelines, prepared by Kasru
6. Culture, Ecology and Livelihood in the Tinombo Susilo and Andrew Keir.
Region of Central Sulawesi, by Tania Li with the
cooperation of Sulaiman Mamar. 19. Environmental Assessment Training for INKlNDO:
Final Report, prepared by JOM A. Villamere and
7. The Administration of the ANDAL Process: Anhar Kusnaedi.
Recommendations, prepared by Robert Langford.
20. Environmental Statistics in Indonesia, prepared by
8. Mangrove Management: An Economic Analysis of Michael Bordt.
Management Options with a focus on Bintuni Bay,
Irian Jaya, prepared by H. Jack Ruitenbeek. 21. Environmental and Population Information
Framework, prepared by Anthony Friend and Surna
9. Social Impact Assessment: An Introductory Djajadiningrat.
Handbook, prepared by Natalia M. Krawetz.
22. The Development of Environmental Impact
10. Implementation Manual for ANDAL in the Ministry of Assessment (AMDAL) in Indonesia, by Shirley A. M.
Public Works, prepared by Michael J. Kent and Dana Conover and Arthur J. Hanson.
Kartakusuma.
23. Macroeconomic Policies and Economic Instruments
It. Environmental Assessment Training for INKINDO: for Environmental Management in Indonesia: Their
An Advisory Program, prepared by Leslie Smythe Future Role in Economic Policy, Sectoral Planning
and Anhar Kusnaedi. and Regional Development, prepared by H. Jack
Ruitenbeek, Dr. Surna T. Djajadiningrat, and Cynthia
12. Sustainable Energy: An Initial Policy Assessment M. Cartier.
for Indonesia, prepared by David B. Brooks.
24. GIS Technology in Support of the Spatial Planning
13. Implementation of Environmental Assessment Process in Indonesia, prepared by Jacqueline A.
(AMDAL) Legislation, 1986·1989, prepared by Booth.
Robert G. Morrison in consultation with
R.E.Soeriatmaja and Nabiel Makarim. 25. Training for Environmental Impact Assessment
(AMDAL) in Indonesia, prepared by David S. Morgan.

EMDI Environmental Reports (Continued)
26. A Conceptual Framework of Analysis and Action on
Energy and the Environment in Indonesia, prepared
by Luigi Di Marzo.
27. An Evaluation Framework/or the Environmental
Management Development in Indonesia (EMDI3)
Project, prepared by Dale H. Poel and Robert
Boase.
28. Population and Environment: An Exploration 0/
Critical Linkages, edited by Fay G. Cohen and
Joan M. Campbell.
29. Indonesia's Environmental Assessment
Process (AMDAL): Progress. Problems
and a Blueprint/or Improvement, prepared
by John Dick and Lynn Bailey.
30. Air Quality Standards in Indonesia, prepared
by J.H. Kozak in consultation with Drs.
R.P. Sudarrno.
31. Population-Environment Linkages:
Toward a Conceptual Framework, edited by
Peter Boothroyd
32. Effect of Oil on Marine Resources: A World Wide
Literature Review Relevant to Indonesia, prepared
by NA Sloan.
33. Terrestrial Biodiversity Management in
Indonesia: Study and Recommendations,
prepared by Julian Oliver Caldecott.
34. Emergency Response Systems and Marine
Pollution Preparedness and Response in
Indonesia, prepared by Howard R. Hurne.
35. Coral Reef Ecosystems: Environmental
Management Guidelines, prepared by Tomas
Tornascik.
36. Population and Environment: Population Quality
and Sustainable Settlements, edited by M. Alwi
Dahlan and Geoffrey B. Hainsworth.
37. Environmental Law: Compliance and
Enforcement, prepared by Robert A. Patzer.
38. Hazardous Waste Management Program in Indonesia,
prepared by Robert E. Byers.
39. Science and Management Review of Tropical Seagrass
Ecosystems in Support of Integrated Coastal Zone
Management in Indonesia, prepared by N. A. Sloan.
40. Environmental Impact Assessment Training
in Indonesia: Suggestions for Improvement,
prepared by Williarn A. Ross.
41. Terrestrial Biodiversity Management Program
in Indonesia, prepared by Sonia Lagos-Witte.
42. Development and Implementation of Water
Quality Management Systems in Indonesia,
prepared by Clifton Potter.
43. PROKASIH: Strategy for Water Quality
Monitoring and Assessment, prepared by
C.G. Iardine.
44. Marine Biodiversity Management, prepared
by Reginald A. Watson.
45. Integrated Regional Environmental
Development Program (INREDEP), prepared
by M. Craig Taylor.