CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Human Behavior in
theSocial Environment
1
Introduction
SocialWork
IntheUnited States
OutsidetheUnited States
Human Needs andSocial
Environ mentDefined
SomeReasons forInadequate
Attention toHuman Needs
TheUnitedNations Human
Rights Declaration andIts
Connectio ntoHuman
Behavior intheSocial
Enviro nment
NaturalandUnnatural
Disasters Impacting Human
Needs
World Systems Theory as
Concept ualFramewor k
What IsWorld Systems Theory?
UseofWorld System sTheory
intheLiterature
Rationale forUseofWorld
Systems Theory
TheConnection ofWorld
Systems Theory toMacro
Human Behavior inthe
Social Environment
President Barack Obama
Illustrating theConceptual
Framework
Conclusion
KeyTerms andConcept s
INTRODUCTION
InColumbus,Ohio, afirst-tim ejurorkeptajournal duringherjuryserviceina
murder trial.Thetriallasted aweek,andthejurordescribed thesocial
environmen tdepicted fromthewitnes sstandandthebondingofjurors during

breaks.Asrevealed inherjournal, thejudgeinstructed thejurors toputaside
theirbiases, andwhentheydid,thejuryacquitted thedefendant(“Murder Trial
Thrus tsJurorIntoRare Bond With Strangers,” 2006).However, themost
import antaspectsofthisjuror’s experience wererevealed inwhat shewrote
about thewitnessesinthecase.Thisjuror,a52-year-ol dWhitefemale froman
upper- classcommunity, wrote thatshewouldnever forget “theworldinwhich
crime, drugsandsocial dysfunction runrampant”andthatthejury“heard from
anarrayofpeople whose liveswerealready inruin—peoplehangingonatthe
fringeofsociety ”—and thenlamented thatthe“case leftmefeelingsadforthe
world thatsomanypeopleinhabit—thei rsocialsituation,lackofeducation and
inability toseeawayout”(“Murder TrialThrustsJuror IntoRareBondWith
Strang ers,”2006,p.E1).
Thisreport from ajurorinamurdercaserepresent sthemes presented
throughout thisbook. Thejuror,wholivedlessthan10milesfromthe
defendant’sneighborhoo d,confessed thatthisneighborhood wasaworld and
anenvironment thatshedidnotknowexisted.Thatshewastotallyunawar eof
thisenvironment anditsconditionssuggeststhatglaringhuman needsmaynot
always bereflected inbriefnewsreports.Seeingandhearing realpeoplerecount
theirtypical livesandbehaviorsonthewitnessstandproved more revealing.
Also,ifthisjurordidnotknow howpeople livedlessthan10milesfromher
neighborhood, shewasunlikelytoknow howpeoplelived10,000 milesaway
indeveloping countr ies.Althoughnotreadilyapparent,thediscussionabout
thisjurorexemplifies humanbehaviorinthesocialenvironm ent(HBSE) .
Taking amacro orbroad perspective, thisbook covers human behaviors
within thesocial environment—that is,howorganizations, institutions, and
communities impact individuals andfamilies. Macro isaprefix,meaning
“large, broad, orextensive,” andisusedtoindicat ethebroadness ofanentity,
aconditio n,orasystem. Moreover ,community hereincludes theinternatio nal
community. Aprimary focus ofHBSE textbooks istohelpstudents become
aware ofhowevents andoccurrences inonesystem affect other systems,and
HBSE provides knowledge thatmaybeusedforsocial work practice and
intervention andsocial welfare policy analysis.
Human behaviors andnaturaleventsareinextricably interconnected,
positivelyandnegatively.Forinstan ce,whenHurricaneKatrinaclosedtheNew
Orleansportin2005, Japan,whichhadpurchasedcornfromtheUnited States,
turnedtoSouth Africatobuycorn.Japan’spurchasesreduced theamount of
cornavailable toAfricansandalsodroveuptheprices,makingcorntoo
expensiveforpoorAfricancountrie stobuyandexacerbatingfaminesinsome
ofthem(Wines, 2005a) .Thischainofevents shows howanaturaldisasterin
2 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

onecountrycanhaveanegativeeffectonthefulfillmentofhumanneeds onthe
othersideoftheworld.
Many ofusareconnected withandbenefit fromonetypeoforganizat ional
system,corporati ons.In2006,ExxonMobil recorded profits for2005of$36billion.
Many corpor ations havebeencriticized forexploit ingpeopleandenvironments in
developing countries through globalizati on.According totheCarnegieEndowmen t
forInternation alPeace,“globalizatio nisaprocessofinteraction andintegration
among thepeople, companies,andgovernments ofdifferent nations,aproces sdriven
byinternat ionaltradeandinvestment andaided byinformation technology. This
process haseffects ontheenvironment, onculture,onpoliticalsystems, oneconomic
development andprosperity, andonhuman physical well-beinginsocietiesaround
theworld”(CarnegieEndowment, 2007).
Howe ver,regularcitizens likeyouandyourfamilybenefitfromsome
corpora tions’exploitivebehavi ors.Webenefit because many ofthepension
boards thatmanage ourpensions andretirement accounts holdstock inthese
corporat ions.Themoney thatgoesintoretirement accounts isnotjustputin
savingsaccounts.Instead, themoneyisinvested incorporate stocks,and
retirement benefitsaretiedtodividends. When thesecorporatio nsunderperform,
pension boards arepressured toreduce retirement benefits orincrease thetime
aretiree mustwaittodraw onhisorherpension .Butwhenstocksearn
considerabl eprofits,likethe$36billion earned byExxon ,shareho ldersbenefi t.
Ontheother hand,when companies gobankrupt, thefederalgovernmenttakes
overthecompanies’pension plans, andthese pensionsarereduced very
significantly, impactingthequality oflifeforretirees. Laterinthistextbo ok,we
willdescribehowanumber ofpension plansfrommunicipalitiesareinserious
trouble andhowpensions arereduced significantlywhenacorporation enters
bankruptcy —allnegatively affecting human needs andsocialsystem s.
SOCIAL WORK
IntheUnited States
According totheU.S.Department ofLabor (2005), social workisa
profession forthose withastrong desire tohelpimprove people’s lives.Social
workers helppeople function thebestwaytheycanintheirenvironment s,deal
withtheirrelationship s,andsolvepersonalandfamilyproble ms.Socialworkers
oftenseeclients whofacelife-threateningdiseasesorsignifica ntsocialproblems .
These problems mayinclude inadequate housing, unemployment, serious
3Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

illness,disability, orsubstance abuse. Social workers alsoassist families dealing
withseriousdomestic conflicts,including those involving child orspousal
abuse.TheCouncil onSocial Work Education (CSWE) ,asocial work
governingbody, asserts thatsocial work iscommi ttedtotheenhancement of
humanwell-being andtothealleviation ofpoverty andoppression. Within its
generalscope ofconcern,professional socialwork ispracticed inawidevariety
ofsettings. Ithasfourrelated purposes:
1.Thepromotion, restoration,maintena nce,andenhancement ofthe
functionin gofindividual s,families, groups,organiz ations, andcommu nities
byhelping themaccomplish tasks,prevent andalleviate distress,anduse
resources
2.Theplanning, formulation, andimplement ationofsocial policies, services ,
resources, andprograms needed tomeetbasichuman needs andsupport
thedevelo pment ofhuman capacities
3.Thepursuit ofpolicies, services, resources, andprograms through
organizational oradministrative advocacy andsocial orpoliticalaction
toempow ergroups atriskandtopromote social andeconomic justice
4.Thedevelopment andtestingofprofes sionalknowledge andskillsrelated
tothesepurposes (CSWE,2005).TheHBSE sequence,asestablishedby
CSWE, seekstoimpartanunderstandi ngofthefirstofthesegoals.
Succinct ly,CSWErequires thatHBSE coursesprovidestudents withcontent
ontheoriesandknowledge ofhuman bio-psycho -socialdevelopmen t,includin g
theoriesandknowledge oftherange ofsocialsystems inwhichindividualslive.
Figure1.1depicts individ ualsorhuman beings andtheirconnections todifferent
systems andsocialinstitutions. Huma nbeings areconnected tofamilies,groups ,
organizations, communities, social institutions,andtheworld.Although Figure1.1
doesnotshowthereciproca lrelatio nships amongthese systems andsocial
institutions, reciprocal relationships exist,andallsystems impact eachother.
Inaddition, HBSE mustprovideanunderstandingoftheinteractions among
biological, social, psychological,andculturalsystemsastheyrelatetohuman
behaviors. Furthermor e,HBSEmustprovide contentontheimpact ofsocial
andeconomic forces onindividualsandsocialsystems, aswellastherolethese
systems playinpromotingordeterringindividuals’optimal healthandwell-
being.Thesegoals, andotherCSWEgoals, arethefocusofmicro andmacro
HBSEcourses. Thistextbookfocusesonthemacro perspective,conceptualizing
commun ityasembracingtheinternationa lcommunity. Anunderstandingof
human rights isimportanttoembracing aninternationalperspectiveof
4 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

5Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
commun itybecause seriousviolationsofhumanrightsimped eanddeterhuman
well-bein g—which socialworkstrivestopreventandalleviate.
Outsid etheUnitedStates
Social work aspracticed intheUnited States isdifferent fromsocial work
aspractice dinothercountries. Differences inculture, customs, andbeliefs
prevent thetransport ofanAmerican model ofsocial work toadeveloped or
developing countr y.Discussing onerecently passed lawintended tohelp
Africangirlswhoweresubjected tovirgintesting, Patekile Holomisa,president
oftheCongress ofTraditional Leaders ofSouth Africa, declared that“wewill
Families
Organization s
World
Social
Institutions
Communities
Groups
Human
Beings
Figure1.1 AConfiguration ofHuman Beings’ Connection toVariousSocialSystems

upholdourtraditions andcustoms. ...There arelawsthatpassed thatdonot
necessarily haveanyimpact onthelivesofpeople. Iimagine thiswillbeoneof
those” (LaFraniere, 2005, p.A1).Atthesametime,international social work
standards require respect forcustoms andtraditions aslongasthese customs
andtraditionsdonotviolate fundamental human rights. Some South African
womenbelieve thatvirgin testingisaviolation ofhuman rights, butother
SouthAfrican women believe itisanimportant partoftheirculture and
traditions, supported byfamilies andcommunities. Moreover, theefforts ofa
singlesocial institution, South African law,maybeineffective instopping this
practice without theinvolvement ofadditional socialinstitutions.
In2004, theInternati onalAssociation ofSchools ofSocial Work (IASSW)
andtheInternational Federation ofSocial Workers (IFSW) metinAdelaide,
Australia, todevelop theGlobal StandardsfortheEducation andTraining of
theSocial Work Profession (Sewpaul &Jones, 2004). TheIASSW andIFSW
document defined internati onalsocial work asfollows:
Thesocialwork profession promot essocialchange, problem solving in
human relationships andtheempowerment andliberation ofpeopleto
enhance well-being. Utilising theories ofhuman behaviour andsocial
systems, social work intervenes atthepoints wherepeople interact with
their environments. Principles ofhuman rights andsocial justiceare
fundamental tosocialwork.(Sewpaul &Jones, 2004,p.2)
Moreover, IASSW andIFSWagreed onthecorepurposesofsocial work
(seeTable 1.1).
6 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment
Table1.1 CorePrinciples ofInterna tional Social Work
1.Facilitatetheinclus ionofmarginali zed,socially exclud ed,dispossessed, vulnerable, and
at-riskgroupsofpeople
2.Address andchallenge barriers,inequalities ,andinjustices thatexistinsociety
3.Form short- andlonger-term working relationships withandmobilizeindividuals,
families, groups, organizations, andcommunities toenhan cetheirwell-bei ngandtheir
problem-solving capacities
4.Assist andeducatepeopletoobtain services andresources intheircommunities
5.Formulate andimplement policiesandprograms thatenhance people’s well-being,
promote development andhuman rights,andpromote collective social harmony andsocial
stabilit y,insofar assuchstabilitydoesnotviolate human rights

Many similaritiesexistbetween socialworkinAmerica andsocial workinthe
internation alcommunity. BothAmerican andinternation alsocialworkfocuson
thepromot ion,restoration, maintenance, andenhancement ofthefunctioningof
individuals, families,groups, organizati ons,andcommun ities.Recogni zingthe
importance ofinternational socialworkin2004,CSWE established the
Katherine A.KendallInstituteforInternatio nalSocial WorkEducation.CSWE
notedthatsocialwork education programs musttraintheirstudents toliveand
workinaworldwhere geographical boundariesmaybecrossed much faster than
everbeforeandwhere information isreadily accessi bleworld wide. Onewayto
accomplish thistaskistointernationalize thesocialworkcurriculum.AsCSWE
noted,“thepovertyofdeveloping nations,indebtedn ess,staggerin glevelsof
disease,lackofaccess tohealthcare, employment, clean water,peaceful
coexis tencewithone’s neighb oring countries,suggests astrongandcontinuing
roleonthepartofsocial workprograms ineducatin gstudentsandfacultiesto
addres stheseconditions aspartofourcollective missioninsecuringthe
conditions forworldpeace andstability” (CSWE,2005,p.2).
TheKatherineA.Kendall InstituteforInternational Social Work Educat ion
advances themainstream development ofinternational content insocial work
7Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
6.Encourage peopletoengage inadvocacy withregard topertinent local, national, and
regionaland/orinternational concerns
7.Advocat eforand/or withpeople theformul ation andtargeted impleme ntationofpolicies
thatareconsistent withtheethical principles oftheprofession
8.Advocat eforand/or withpeople changes inthose policiesandstructural positions that
maintainpeople inmarginalized, dispos sessed, andvulnerable positions andthose that
infringeuponthecollective social harmony andstability ofvarious ethnic groups, insofar
assuchstability doesnotviolatehumanrights
9.Worktoward theprotection ofpeople whoarenotinaposition todosothemselves, for
examplechildren andyouth inneedofcareandpersons experiencing mental illness or
mentalretardation within theparameters ofaccepted andethically sound legislation
10.Engage insocial andpolitical action toimpact social policy andeconomi cdevelopment
andtoeffect change bycritiquing andeliminating inequaliti es
11.Enhance stable, harmonious, andmutually respectful societiesthatdonotviolate people’ s
human rights
12.Promo terespect fortraditions, cultures, ideologies, beliefs,andreligionsamongst different
ethnicgroupsandsocieties, insofar asthose donotconflictwiththefundamental human
rightsofpeople
13.Plan,organi ze,administer, andmanage programs andorganizations dedicated toanyof
thepurpo sesdelineated above

curriculum andboostscross-organizational partnerships among social worke rsin
developingprojectsandresearch.Ultimately, these collaborations willprepare
studentswiththeknowle dgeandskillsnecessaryforamoreinterdependent global
community(CSWE,2005). Although CSWE requires international content in
socialworkcurriculum, SteenandMathiesen (2005), following anempirical
study,concludedthat“unfortun ately,mostschools ofsocialwork withMSW
[master ofsocialwork] program sarefailing toinfuse human rights contents into
corecoursesandfailing toofferhumanrights electives” (p.149). Human rights
violationsareprevalent around theworld, andtheseviolations create tremendous
humanneeds andseverelyimpede thefirstpurpose ofsocial work.
HUMAN NEEDS AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT DEFINED
Inthepsychologydiscipline, Abraham Maslow (1962) described ahierarch yof
humanneeds thathavebeendepicted inmany textbooks. Atthebottom are
physiologicalneeds,which arebasictosurvival, suchasfood,water, clothing, and
shelter.Safetyneedsarenext.Belonging andloveneeds follow safety needs. Self-
esteemneedsarenext. Then,atthetipofthehierarchy isself-actualization.
AccordingtoMaslow, these needs must besatisfied sequentially because, for
instance,ifaperson’sphysiolo gicalandsafety needs arenotmet,hisorherself-
esteemneedsareimpossible toaddress .While self-actualizat ion,orthestateand
conditi onofachieving one’shighestpotential, istheoptimal goal,most
individualsdonotachieve thisstate.Many individuals, furthermore, maynotfeel
loveandbelongingness.SeeFigure 1.2.
Onemay surmise thataperson’s environment, while notaddressed
specificallybyMaslow, maydetermine theextent towhichtheseneedsaremet.
Forinstance, inacorrectional environment, prisoners mayget,andareonly
legally require dtoreceive,thefulfillmen toftheirphysiological needs. Safety
needs arenotensured. Simila rly,insome commun ities,safety needs arenot
achieved,andmanyresidents liveinfear.Then,forsome commun itieswith
resources, mostoftheirneeds maybemet,andtheymaycomeclosetobeingself-
actualiz ed.Butinsomedeveloping countri es,tornapartbyethniccleansingand
civilwars,manyphysiologica lneeds arenotmet,andpeople starve ordiefrom
malnutritionorexposuretothephysical elements inthose environments.
TheSocialWorkDiction arydefinesneeds as“thephysical,psychological,
economic,cultural,andsocialrequirements forsurvival, well-being, andfulfillment”
(Barker,2003, p.291). Furthe r,socialfunctioning isdefined as“living uptothe
expectations thataremade ofanindividual bythatperson’s ownself,bythe
immediate socialenvironment, andbysociety atlarge. Theseexpectations, or
functions,include meeting one’sownbasicneedsandtheneedsofone’sdependents
8 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

andmaking positivecontributions tosociety. Human needsinclude physical aspects
(food, shelter, safety,health care,andprotection),personal fulfillment (education,
recreation, values, aesthetics,religion, andaccomplis hment),emotional needs(asense
ofbelonging ,mutualcaring,andcompanions hip),andanadequate self-concept
(self-confidence, self-esteem,andidentity )”(Barker ,2003, p.403).
Zastrow andKirst-Ashman (2001) provide averybroad definitionofsocial
environmen t,includ ingalltheconditions, circumstanc es,andhuman
interactions thatsurround human beings. Inorder toendure andflourish,
humanbeings mustfunctioneffectively withinthese broad environments.
Moreover, thesocial environment consists ofthehuman beings’ actualphysical
setting. Forinstance, aperson’ ssocialenvironment would include thetypeof
9Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Self-
Actualization
Needs
Self-Este emNeeds
Belongingness andLoveNeeds
SafetyNeeds
Physiological Needs
Figure1.2 Maslo w’sHierarchy ofHuman Needs

homeinwhich apersonresides, thetypeofwork aperson does, aperson’s
availableincome, andthelawsandsocialrulesthatgovern thatperson .The
socialenvironment involves individu als,both intimate andnonintimate;
groups;organizations; andcommunities. Itincludes allthesocial institutions
affectin ganindividual, such ashealth care,housing, social welfar e,and
educational systems (Zastrow &Kirst-Ashman, 2001).
Boththesocialandphysicalenvironments, conceptualized ascomponents of
communityattachment, areimportant tofullyunderstanding some aspects of
humanbehaviorsandmacroissues (Brehm, Eisenhauser ,&Krannich, 2004). For
someresearchers,communityattachment consists ofthedegree ofanindividu al’s
rootednessinlocalsocial relations, butBrehm etal.noted thatsometheoreticians
indicatedthatthenaturalenvironmentandthenatural settingareanimport ant
partofcommunityattach ment.Asanillustration, theseresearchers undertook a
studytolearnhowbothsocial andphysical aspects oftheenvironment affected
thewell-beingofindividuals incommunities intheruralWesternpartofthe
United States.Theiruseofthesocial andphysical environment sinmeasur ing
communityattachment suppo rtsthecontent validity oftheirmeasurement.
Some ReasonsforInadequate Attention toHumanNeeds
Whetherornotthepublic perceives thataneedorasocial problem exists
determ ines,inlargepart,whether thatneedorproblem isaddressed. Various
social institutions, suchasreligious organizations andthenewsmedia, havea
lottodowithbringing matter stothepublic’s attention .What thepublic thinks
isimportant, andpolling agencies areconstantly investigat ingpublic opinion.
Almost allpoliticians readpollsandrespond insome wayaccording towhat
theyperceive thepublic wants. Ofthe15social problems polled inonesurvey,
11appear topositively ornegatively affect human needs (seeTable 1.2).These
11includ eEducation, Environment, DrugAddiction, Halting Crime, Problems
ofBigCities, Improving HealthCare, Improving Conditions forBlacks,
Welfare, Mass Transportation, Social Security, andParks&Recreation. In
2002, nearly 40%ofthose polled believed thatthegovernment spenttoomuch
money onwelfare, and64%believed thatthegovernment spent toomuch on
foreign aid(New Strategist, 2005).
Gil(2004) states thathuman needsexistintheUnited Statesbecausethe
UnitedStates isanunjustsociety.Gil(2004) explained thecharact eristics ofa
justandanunjust society,notingthatajustsocietyischaracterized byequality,
liberty, individuality, collectivityorientationandmutualism,andcooperation,
whereasanunjust societyischaracterized byinequality,dominationand
exploitation, selfishnes sandindividuali sm,disregardforcommunity, and
10 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

competition. Gil(2004) elaboratedupon theseconcepts onthreelevels—
individ ualhuman relations,socialinstitutions, andglobal human relations.
Inaddition, Gil(2004,p.34)discusses“structuralviolence,”whichemanates
fromunjust societies :
Thefunctionofstructuralviolenceistoestablish andmaintain social,
economic, andpolitical inequalities among individu als,socialgroups,andsocial
classes. Inequalities ofrights, responsibil ities,andopportun itiesamong people
11Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Table 1.2 Americans’ Views ofSpending toAddress Social Needs in2002
Source: Compiled frommultiple tables inAmerican Attitudes: What Americans Think About theIssues That
Shape Their Lives (4thed.),byNewStrategist, 2005, Ithaca, NY:NewStrategist Publications.
SocialNeeds
TooLittleAbout Right TooMuch Don’tKnow
% % % %
Education 73.3 20.5 5.4 1.0
Environment 58.5 32.4 6.6 2.4
Drug Addiction 57.2 30.2 9.4 3.2
Halting Crime 55.9 34.9 6.6 2.6
Problem sofBigCities 41.5 36.5 13.5 8.6
Improving HealthCare 73.7 20.9 3.8 1.5
Improving Conditions forBlacks 30.6 45.8 17.1 6.5
Military 30.5 45.3 21.7 2.4
Foreign Aid 6.5 26.9 63.5 3.1
Welfare 20.6 37.0 39.3 3.0
SpaceProgram 11.1 47.2 35.3 6.4
Mass Transportat ion 34.8 49.4 10.1 5.7
Highway s&Bridges 34.4 49.9 12.2 3.5
SocialSecurity 58.6 33.3 4.5 3.6
Parks &Recreation 34.0 57.2 5.3 2.8

ofasocietyareunlikely toeverbeestablished andmaintained voluntarily.
Rather,theirestablishment requires coercion intheformofinitiating
physical violencewhich isgradually complement edbya“consciousness of
submi ssion” resultingfromideolog icalindoctrination orthecolonization of
people’s minds.Structural violenceleadsitsvictims tocounterviolence .This
countervi olenceisnotdirected atthesources, beneficiar iesoractors ,
furtheringinjustices.Instead, victimsofstructu ralviolencetendtoperpetrate
countervi olenceintheirowncommu nitiesthrough domestic violence ,sexual
assaults,crime,addictions, mentalillness,andsuicides.
Although Gil(2004)wasdiscussingonlyAmerican society, hisviews canbe
applied tomany international communit ies.Internationally, humanneeds exist
becauseofextreme poverty andhumanrightsviolations(Human RightsWatch,
1999b, 2003).Sometimes governmen tsindeveloping countr iesareinsensitivetothe
needsoftheirpeople.Theywanttostayinpower byanymeans necessary (Human
RightsWatch,2004a, 2005e).Someindividuals maywanttoseizepower andmay
engageincoupstooverthrow existing governments. Asaresult,people whomay
alreadyhavesignificant needsbecause ofpovertyhavetheirneedssignificantly
intensified (Human RightsWatch, 2003),suchaswomenandgirlswhohavebeen
tricked intoprostitutioninforeigncountries (HumanRightsWatch,2002a) .
TheUnitedNationsHuman Rights Declaration and
ItsConnection toHumanBehaviorintheSocialEnvironment
TheUnited Nations Gener alAssembly in1948 issued areport titled the
Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights anddeclar edinitthatallpersons are
bornfreeandequal inrights anddignity. Further, noperson wastobeheldin
slavery orsubject tocruel, inhuman, ordegrading treatment, punishmen t,or
torture. Allpersons haveanatural rightto
•equal protection ofthelaw;
•liberty tomove ortravel withinone’s country, toformafamily, andto
acquireproperty;
•freedom ofexpression; and
•freedom ofreligion.
These humanrightsarearticulated within30articles oftheUniversalDeclaration
ofHuman Rights,andthese30articleshelpdefine crimes against humanit yand
humanrightsviolations(seeAppendix B).Moreover,SusanD.Solomon (2003, p.4),
12 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

anadvocate forhuman rights, states that“all[30articles] werealsoheldtobe
entitled totheindispensable economic, social, andcultural benefits oftheircountry ,
includinganadequate standard ofliving,employment, education, andhealthcare.”
TheUnited Nations alsohasestablished itsMillennium Goals toEndPoverty as
preventable starvation isahuman rights violati on(seeAppendix A).Inadditio n,
Belgiumhasgivenitselftherightandjurisdiction toprosecute serious violation sof
human rights wherever theyoccur intheworld (Human Rights Watch,2005d) .
Thepromotion ofhuman rights isconnect edtosocial workandHBSE.
Violations ofmany ofthesehumanrights(e.g.,Articles3,4,5,9,14,16,22,23,25,
26,and29)leadtodecreased well-being anddysfunction inindividuals, families,
groups, andcommu nities. Particularly, Article25corresponds closely toHBSE. It
declares thateveryone hasarighttoastandard ofliving adequate forindividuals’
health andwell-bei ngandfortheirfamilies’health andwell-being. These needsshall
include food,clothing,housing, medical care,socialservices when necessary, and
security affectedbyunemp loyment,sicknes s,disability, widowhood, andoldage.
Inaddition ,mothers andchildren arerecognized asentitledtospecial careand
assistance, withallchildren borninoroutofmarriages given thesame social
protection. Inshort,violations ofhuman rightscreate threats tosurvival,fulfillment,
andwell-bei ng,suchasthoseviolations illustrated below.
Examples ofHuma nRightsViolations inInternational
Communities andOneCommunity’s Response
The1994genocide inRwanda isanexample oftheeffects ofstructural violence
thatGil(2004) described. Therootcause ofthisgenocide canbetraced toarace
theory, advanc edinthelate1800s byaBritish explorer, JohnHanning Speke.
Speke theorized thatallAfricans weredescendentsofaCaucasoid tribeinEthiop ia.
Thehigher -order Africans weretallandsomewhat lightskinned.Speke believed
thatallotherAfricans weresubhuman. Invokin gSpeke’s theory, theBelgians, who
tookcontrol ofRwanda fromtheGermans in1916, believed thatthetallerand
somewhat lighter-sk inned Tutsis weresuperior totheshorterHutus.TheBelgians
gavetheTutsis administrative duties overtheHutus,andtheBelgians andTutsis
severelyoppressed theHutus. Theelevation oftheTutsis, whowere inthe
minority, madeiteasyforBelgium toexploit thecountry’s teaandcoffee resource s
without having alargenumber ofBelgians inRwanda. TheBelgians permitted the
Tutsis,butnottheHutus, toreceive aneducatio n.Only theTutsiscould be
employed ascivilservants,andtheHutus didallthemenial jobsandlabor.Arigid
classification system wasimplemented thatrequiredcitizens tocarryidentificati on
cardsasaHutuoraTutsi. While theBelgiansclassified Rwandans aseither Hutu
orTutsi, theclassification system wasveryarbitrary (Temple-Raston, 2005).
13Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

PriortotheBelgiansentering Rwand a,theTutsis andHutussharedsimilar
cultures,language,andreligion. Elevat edtoaconferred superi orstatusbythe
Belgians ,theTutsis relished theirperceivedsuperi orityovertheHutus,andthe
Hutus assumedtheroleoftheoppressed andseethed overtheirmaltreatment. In
1959, theHutuslaunched anassault ontheTutsisafteraHutuleaderwas
attacked. SomeTutsiswentintoexile.In1961,aHutumajori tyvotebroughtan
endtotheTutsimonarchy. Empowe redHutus,suspiciousofTutsis andfearful
oftheirreturntopower, began todenigrate theTutsis. Tutsielemen tsformedthe
Rwanda nPatriotic Front (RPF) tofighttheHutugovernment. When theHutu
president’s planewasshotdown in1994,theHutusembarked onagenocidal
campaig ntoeliminate Tutsis. Almost 1millionTutsis andmoderat eHutus who
weremarriedtoTutsisorwhotriedtoprotectTutsiswereslaughtered (Templ e-
Raston, 2005).Hence, thestructure ofRwand ansocietyimposed byBelgium in
1916 precipitate dthelatergenocide inthe1990s.TheHutus didnotaimtheir
violenc eatBelgium butpromulgated itwithintheirowncommun ities.This
genocidealsoillustrates ahuman rightsviolation andthecreationofhuman
needs inthesocialenvironment.
Duringthegenocide inRwanda, someTutsiwomen wererapedbeforebeing
killed (Temple-Raston, 2005).Olujic (1995)lamente dtheuseofrapeasan
instrument ofwarduring theethnic cleansingandgenocide inBosnia and
Herzegovina, noting thatrapeisharmful notonlyattheindividual,familial, and
community levelsbutalsoattheinternational level.Women andgirlsimpregnated
asaresultofrapeareoftenshunnedbytheirfamiliesandcommuniti es,which adds
totheirindividual trauma. Attheinternational level,rapeviolates anindividual’s
human rights, towhich manynations haveagreed toadhere .Currently, rape
during warandconflict hasbeencodifiedasahuman rights violation.
Revealingthesocietal impact ofhuman rights violations onacommunity,
Kornfeld (1995, pp.118–119 ),amember ofahuman rights mental health
agency inChile, wrote that
Chilewasaccusedbytheinternational communi tyofviolatinghuman rights
during thewholeperiod of[Augusto Pinochet’s] dictatorship .This“issue”
wasnotonlypolitical butalsoasocial,ethical, psychosocial, andmental
healthproblem fortheChileansociety....Ontheonehand,humanrights
issues wereconsidere dbythemilitaryregimeapartofaconspir acy....Onthe
otherhand,human rightsviolations broughtrespons esfromvarioussectors of
Chileansociety. Lawyers ,social workers,physicians,psychotherapists,
Catholic priests,andministers ofother churches turned thedefense of
human rightsintoacentral issueintheirlives.Their efforts entailed a
commitment tohumanlifeandhuman beingsaswellastotheirvaluesand
14 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

beliefs.Thatcommitme ntimpliedtomany ofthemawayofrescuing their
ownlifeprojects,disrup tedbypolitical conditionsandpoliticalrepressi on.
Surviv orsandhuman rights workers projected theirexpectations, wishes,
fears, frustrat ions,impotence, guilt,rage,aggressi on,sufferings,andlosses
ontothesubject of“human rights.” Itimpliedalsoanotherwayof
participating inpublicaffairs.
Kornfeld showed theimpact ofhuman rightsviolations onacommunity and
howcommunity members responded togenocide intheirenvironment.
Moreover,humanrights violations ofteninvolve theuseoftorture. According
toKornfeld(1995,p.116), torture is“thedeliberateandsystematic applicat ion
ofexcrucia tingpaintoapersoninanattempt toundermine thewill,theaffective
linksandtheloyalties,beliefs,andphysical andpsychic integrity oftheindividual.
Lifethreatsandphysica lpainaretheessence oftorture. Atabroaderlevel,the
reason fortortureistointimidate thirdparties,thereby ensuring responses offear,
inhibition, paralysis,impotence ,andconformity within society.” Essent ially,
torture isintendedtosubjuga tegroups andcommunities.
Thelackofsufficientfood, orfamine, indeveloping countrieshasbeen
called ahuman rights violation. Jenkins andScanlan (2001, p.721)stated that
foodisanessential human needandshould beviewed asauniversal human
right, drawing “onthefindings ofpaststudies ofsocial welfare, especially
those onthephysical quality oflifeandotherbasic needs.” Moreover, the
World Food Programme, aUnited Nations organization, stated thattargeted
interventions wereneededtohelpimprovethelivesofthepoorest people inthe
world. TheWorldFoodProgramme ’spolicies andstrategiesaim(a)tosave
livesinrefugee andother emergency situations, (b)toimprove thenutrition
andquality oflifeofthemostvulnerable people atcritical times intheirlives,
and(c)tohelpbuild assets andpromote theself-reliance ofpoorpeople and
communities. Totheseends, theWorld Food Programme (2005) emphasized
thatwomen areakeyfocus forintervention because putting foodinthehands
ofwomen willbenefit children andtheentirehousehold andwillstrengthen
women’s coping ability andresilience. Simply, women aretheprimary
caretakers ofchildren, andmeetin gtheirchildren’s needs isforemost forthem,
according toassumptions bytheUnited Nations.
Whileindivid ualsindeveloping countries generally experience morehuman
rights violationsthanindividuals indeveloped countries,developedcountrieshave
beenidentifiedasviolatingtheircitizens’ human rights too(Human Rights Watch,
2004b;2006a).Both Human Rights Watch (1999a, 1999c) andAmnesty
Internation al(2005,2006) haveaccused theUnitedStates ofhuman rights
violations. In1999, theUnited States wasaccused ofhuman rights violationsfor
15Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

embraci ngcapitalpunishment, particularly capital punishment forjuveniles;
policebrutal ityagainst citizens; overincarceration ofAfrican Americans fordrug
offenses;correctionalconfinemen tinadult andjuvenile institutions; labor
violations,especiallyabuses byAmerican companies doing business indeveloping
countries;violationsofgayandlesbian rights;andviolations ofimmigrant rights
(Human RightsWatch, 2006a). Several prisons intheUnited States inparticular
havebeenaccusedofhumanrightsviolations.Asanexample, Human Rights
Watchreveale dthatConnecticut, Delaware, Iowa, South Dakota, andUtahuse
attackdogstoextractprisoners fromcells.Ifaprisoner refuses toleavehiscell
whenordered,theattackdogsarebrought tothefrontofthecell.Iftheprisoner
refuses toleavethecellthen,thedogsareordered toattack theprisoner (Human
RightsWatch,2006b).Massachu settsended itspractice ofusing attack dogs,
declaringthatthereareother waystoremove prisoners fromtheircellsbesides
sendinginanimalstoripprisoners’ flesh(Fellner ,2006).Human Rights Watch
(1999c)hasdocumented practicesinsuper- maximum-s ecurity confinement in
Virgin iathatconstitutehuman rights violations.More recently, Human Rights
Watch (2004b )hascondemned,asahumanrights violation,thesentencingof
juvenilestolifewithout parole.
Insum,Solomon (2003,p.4)declaredthat“experiencessuchastorture,
domes ticviolence, rape,elderabuse, andchildneglect threatenhumandignity,
liberty,andsecurity.Eventslikewar,politicalrepression, terrorism, genocide,
poverty,anddisasterdeprive individualsoftheirhomes, theirfamilies, theirwork,
theirschools, theirplaces ofworship,andtheiraccesstoeducation andhealthcare.”
In1995, theWorldSummit forSocialDevelopment (WSSD) recognized thatprogress
inrespectinghumanrights hadbeenmade butmorestillneeded tobedone
worldwide.WSSDnoted currentproblemsofsocial polarizationandfragmentation
(i.e.,commun itydisorganization),expandingdispar itiesandinequalitiesofincome
andwealth within andamongnations, disrespectfortheenvironment, and
marginal ization ofpeople, families,socialgroups, communities, andentirecountr ies.
Considerabl estrain hasbeenplacedonindividual s,families,communities, and
institutions duetorapidsocialchange,economictransformat ion,migration,and
major dislocationsofpopulation,especiallyinplaces ofarmed conflict(Solomon,
2003). WSSD further noted thatmosttraumatic experience sarenotcaused by
random, inexpl icableevents. Instead, manytrauma ticexperiences havetheirroot
causesinpoverty,unemployment,andsocial disintegration. Although traumatic
experiences thatarecaused bynation aldisasters mayseemtobeindiscriminate,
“eventheseevents aremorelikelytobeexperienced by,andtobetraumatic for,
individuals andcommuni tieswithfewer resour ces”(Solomon, 2003,p.5).
Solomon’s comments ringverytrueforthetsunamithatoccurr edinAsiain2004
andHurricane Katrinathataffected NewOrleans, Louisiana,in2005.
16 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

Natural andUnnatural Disasters Impact ingHuman Needs
Aneglected areainhuman behaviorandthesocialenvironment istheimpact of
natural andunnaturaldisasters onhumanbehavio rsinbothruralandurban
communit ies.Human rights violations, suchasgenocide, ethnic cleansing, andmass
rapeduring civilconflicts, areunnatura ldisasters negatively impactinghumans’
well-being. Also,major events suchasearthquakes ,tornadoes, hurricanes, floods,
andterrorist activities canhaveserious impacts onindividuals andcommunities .
Althoughthefederalgovernmentandcommunit yagencies provide assistance to
people whohaveexperienced anatura ldisaster, thefederalgovernment cannot
makepeople“whole” liketheywerebeforethedisaster. Afewresearche rshave
studied theimpact ofvarious disasters onindivid uals’mentalhealthanddomestic
violence. Thompson,Norris,andHanacek (1993)studied theimpact ofHurricane
Hugo, aCategor y5hurricanethatkilled70people andcausedalmost$14billion
indamages in1989.Theyfound thatmiddle-aged people experienced themost
distress (Thompson etal.,1993).Frasier etal.(2004) investigated theincidents of
domesticviolenceinaNorth Carolina commu nityafterHurricane Floyd in1999.
Theyobserved thatresources werescarce andurged policymakers tobecognizant
ofsubgroup swhoweremorevulnerable todisaster effects.AfterafloodinSt.Louis,
Missouri, severalresearchers founddifferential effects fortypes offamilies (i.e.,
maritalandparent alstatus) (Solomon ,Bravo, Rubio-Stipec, &Canino, 1993). After
theterrorist attackonNewYorkonSeptember11,2001, agroup ofresearc herswas
interested intheimpact oftheattack onpsychosocial variables forpregnant women
whousealcoho landdrugs.After 9/11, thissampleofpregnant women witha
history ofalcoholdependence perceived thattheyhadlesssocial supportcompared
toother women. Theresearchers concluded thattheirstudy wasthefirstto
investigate thepsychoso cialimpact of9/11onpregnant women. Otherresearcher s
studied theimpactof9/11onworkers andvolunteersfortheRedCrossandtheir
useofalcoho laftertheterroristattack(Simons,Gaher, Jacobs, Meyer,&Johnson-
Jimenez, 2005).Thisstudyconsistedof6,055 worker s,64%ofwhomwerewomen
(Simons etal.,2005). Theresearchers found afunctional relationship between
posttraumatic stress symptoms andalcohol consumption. Anindividual’s coping
withtraumatic stresssympto msmaymanifest itselfindecreased orincreasedalcohol
use(Simonsetal.,2005).
WORLD SYSTEM STHEORY ASCONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
World systemstheory isuseful inunderstan dingthemanyissues involvedina
macro perspective ofhuman behavior andthesocialenvironment. Although
17Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

world systems theory’sinitialfocuswasonsystems externaltoacountry,Chase-
Dunn (2001, p.590)asserts that“allthehumaninteracti onnetworkssmall and
large, fromthehouseho ldtoglobaltrade,constitute theworld system.” Chase-
Dunn (2001) hasusedworldsystemstheorytoexplainhuman evolutionoverthe
past12,000 years.Duringthese12,000 years, alllargeandsmall worldsystems
havehad“culturallydifferent groups trade, fight,andmake alliances withone
anothe rinwaysthatimportantly condition processes ofsocialchange” (Chase-
Dunn, 2001, p.601). Some theorists attributethedevelopment ofthemodern
world systems toWestern Europe between1450and1640(Hall,2001) .
Capitalistsandmerchants during thisperiod soughtrawmateri als,labor,and
market s.Their needsspurred increasedtrade netwo rksand“often ledto
coloniza tionofmanyareasoftheworld” (Hall, 2001,p.5).
What IsWorldSystems Theory?
Asaframework, theworld systems perspective provides anunderstanding
andanexplanation forlarge-scale social change overaverylongperiod of
time. Atfirst,itsconceptualizat ionwastoprovide knowledge ofthepatter ns
ofdevelopment involving European hegemony since the1400s. Theworld
system sperspective hastwocentralpropositions:
1.Societies areimporta ntlyconstrain edandaffected bytheirinteractions
withoneanother.
2.Themodern worldsystemhasbeen structured asacore/periphery
hierarchy inwhich economically andmilitarily powerful corestates have
dominated andexploited lesspowerful peripheral regions astheEurope-
centered system expanded toincorporate alltheareas oftheglobe.
(Chase-Dunn &Ford, 1999, p.xi)
Simply, modern societies areviewed ascore, semiperiphery, andperiphery.
Thecoresocieties arethemostdominant economically, technologically, and
militarily. Theperiph erysocietiesaretheleast advanced economically ,
technolog ically, andmilitarily. Thesemiperip herysocieties areinbetween the
coresocieties andtheperiphery societies.
Worldsystemstheorymaybeartificially discussed interms of“structure” and
“dynamic s.”Structureconcerns thecharacteri sticsofthesystem, itscomponents,
andthemany relationships among thesecomponents.Dynami csistheprocess of
structuralchange.General features ofstructure includecapitalism andthe
interstat esystemorpolitical system. Infocusingoncapital ism,worldsystems
18 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

theory principally examines societies based oncapitalism.Economicandpolitical
relationshi psemanate fromthesesystems. These relationship swithintheworld
system occur among certain keycomponents:economic zones, nation-stat es,
socialclasses, andstatus groups. Statusgroup sandsocial groupi ngscoalesce
fromcultura lidentification. Further, religion,language, race,andethnicity may
formthebasisforthisidentificatio n(Shannon,1992).
Asrecounted byChase -Dunn(2001),thedynamics oftheinteractionsamong
classes shapes thecompetitionamongstatesandcapitalistsandtheamount of
resistance putforthbytheperipheryandsemiperiphery societiesagainst
dominan cebythecoresocieties.Under standingthehistoryofsocial change as
awhole requires knowledgeofthestrategie semploy edbytheperipheryand
semiperiphery societiestoresistthedominationbythecoreandthestrategies
employed bythecoresocietiestosubdue theperiphery andsemipe ripher y
societies.Relatively new,worldsystems theoryhasbeenmodif iedandnow
addressesissues morecentraltomacrosystems.SeeFigure1.3below.These
zonescouldalsoreflectdomesticandinternationalcommunit ies.
19Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Core,Modern
Societies
Semiper iphery
Societ ies
Periphery
Societies
Figure1.3 APerspective onDeveloped andDeveloping Societ ies

Asindicated byworld systems theory,theinteractionsanddevelopment of
societiesareadynamic process. Asocietyorcountr ymaybedominant atonepoint
inhistory, butitsdominance maysignificantly decline orevendisappearlater
(Anderson&Chase-Dunn, 2005).Forinstance,Rome ortheRoman Empire was
oncedominantandrepresented acorestateorsociety.Many yearsago,Iraqhada
veryadvanced societywithstreetlightsandsidewalks initscitieswhenEurope was
much lessadvanced.Egypt, atonetime,hadadominant society,andsomeofthe
Africansocieties werewelladvanced,suchasNubiaandEthiopia. Inthe1600s and
until1750,England,France,andSpainweretheprimary hegemonic world powers
(Dunaway, 2000).Presently, thecorestatesorsocietiesaretheUnitedStates, France,
GreatBritain,andRussia. In2005,Anderson andChase-Dunn declaredthatthe
semiperiphery consistsofMexico ,India,Brazil,andChina. Theperipheryconsists
presently ofmostAfrican countriesandpoorcountriesinSouth America andAsia.
Worldsystems’basic structure hasnotchangedmuch, butithasevolved
throughout history. From aworld systems perspecti ve,thestudy ofthesesystem
dynam icsisactually atheory ofmodern historyoranexplanatio nofsocial
chang esfromearlysociety tomodern society.Emphasisisdirected attrends,
cycles,andanexpansion ofmovement upordowneconomically bysocieti esin
differe ntzones.Inacapitalist economy, thefundamental imperative isan
incessanteffecttoamass more capital.Onewaytoamass more capital isto
intensifyworke rexploitation. During periodsofeconomicdowntu rnsand
lowering profits,thedrive toexploit workersincreases dramati callydueto
pressure stokeepcostsdown. Asaconsequence, capitalists become morecreative
indevelopingbetterexploitation tactics.Thus,thelongest trendincapitalist
systems istheexploitatio nofworkers, forwithout exploitation, theworld
system wouldnothavepersisted forover500years(Shannon,1992).
Broadening andDeepening
Theexploitationtrendconsists ofbroadening anddeepening .Broadening isthe
expansion ofcapitalist economic efforts intonewgeographi cregions. Itoccurs
through theproces sofincorporation. Incorporation istheextent ofacoresociety
including aperiphery society withinthecoresociety’s economi cactivities. One
world system stheorist documented theincorporation oftheindigenous populati on
inthesouthwestern United States,delineating “thenatureoftheareabeing
incorporated anditspeople’s response tothatincorporation fundamentally shaped
theincorporationprocess anditslong-term consequences” (Shannon, 1992,
p.129).Dunaway(2000, p.206), inherstudy ofCherokee women, stated that
“when thecapitalist world system incorpora tesanewfrontier, dramatic social
changes aresetinmotion.” Detailing some ofthese effects ofincorporations,
20 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

Dunawa yreported thatEuropean tradecompanies weremaking500% to600%
profitondeerskins thatwereprovided byCherokee hunterswhowerepaidlittle.
Often,theCheroke eswereforced intodebtpeonage, andunpaid debtsfromone
individualwereseized frommembers oftheclan(Dunaway, 2000). IfaCherokee
diedowing debts, those debts became theresponsibility ofrelatives topayoff
(Dunaway,2000). Simply put,Native Americans haveneverrecovered fromtheir
incorporation. Theirwayoflifewasfundamentally changed, andtheywereputon
reservations where someNative Americans stilllivetoday.
Researchers agreethatincorporation affected Native Americans, andstudies
showthattribalconflictsincreased asNative Americans came incontact with
Whites.Contactandlowlevelsofincorporation ledtoincreasedregional violence
andmadetheviolencemore virulent.AsHall(2001) wrote, incorporation can
fragment oramalgamate subordi nategroups. Thetransformation process froman
autonomous nonstate society (suchasaNative American society)toasubordinate
ethnicgroup isintricate, andidentities, cultures, andsocial organizations are
significan tlyaltered(Hall, 2001). Instudying theNavajo, Hall(2000) contended
thathefoundsimilaritieswithotherresearchers whostudied theincorporatio nof
otherNativeAmericangroups.
Presently, onemight assertthattheUnitedStatesisattemptingtoincorporate
Iraq. Numerous professionals andstatespersons ,suchasformer President
Jimmy Carter, havestated thatthewarinIraqisnotabout freedom orthe
freeing ofIraqis fromadictator andtyrant. Instead, itisabout thefactthat
Iraqsitsonthesecond largest supply ofoilintheworld, which theUnited
States andother industrialized nations need. Thepeople inIraqwhohavebeen
labeled asinsurgents could beunders toodfromaworld systems perspective as
resisting domination byacorestate, America.
Thedegree ofincorporation functionsasadependent variable andisexplained
byfourindependent variables: (a)therelative economicormilitary strength ofthe
corestateincomparison totheareabeing incorporated, (b)thesocial condit ions
(e.g.,social structure)andthelevelofeconomic development andtypeofstate
formatio n(orlackthereof) intheareabeing incorporated, (c)theextent and
nature oftheindigen ousresistance toincorporation, and(d)thegeneral levelof
development oftheworld system itselfatthetimeofincorporat ion.
Ontheother hand, deepening occurswhen capitali steconomic relationships
spread tomoreareasoflifewithinworld systemssocieties.Deepening involves several
associated processes—commodi fication,mechanization, contractualization, inter-
dependence, andincreased polarization (seeTable 1.3).Commodification isthe
increasedproduc tionofgoodsavailab leasproperty tobesold,bought,and
possessed. Mechanization, theuseofmore andbettermachinery toincreasethe
output ofworkers ,facilitatescommo dification.Withdeepening exploitation, social
21Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

andeconomicrelationships arecontractualized, orregulate dwithformallegal
agreements. Asdeepening occurs,averyspecialized division oflaboremergestofeed
theexchange ofhighly prizedgoodsthattradersseeasveryprofitable,resultinginthe
interde pendence ofthedifferent laborsectors.AsShannon(1992) putit,deepening
causesincreased polarization andincreas eddissimilarity bytheperiphery andcorein
theareasofwealth andstateorganization behaviors. Becauseofthisinequalit yand
differenttypesofexploitation, economicsurplusflowstothecoreanddoesnotstay
withtheperiphery. Moreove r,“wage-levelsinthecorearehigherbecausemore
workershavehadtheirlaborcompletely commo dified sothattheyarefull
proletarianswhosewages aresufficienttoreproduce theirlabor.Convers ely,inthe
periphery, more ofthelabor forcehasbeenconvertedintosuperexpl oitedsemi-
proletarians....Thisconversion actually hasledtolower reallivingstandardsthan
hadprevaile dbefore. Thedifferen ceintheaccumulated wealthandincomelevels
betweenthecoreandtheperiph eryhassteadily increased”(Shannon, 1992,p.130).
Inthesemiperiphery,alesserdegreeofindustrialization andurbanization exists.
Many semiperiphery stateshavebecomenewlyindustrialized countries. While some
members ofsemiperiphery countries haveenjoyed increasedwealth andhigher
incomes,extremepoverty andlandlessnes samong mostofthepopulat ionstillexist
inthesecountri es.Ethnic, religious, andregional hostilitiesarecommon and
sometimesaffectpolitical andeconomicprocesses.Many semiper ipherystateshave
closerelation shipswithcorecorporations .Semiper iphery states seektoachieve
rapidindustrialization .However,whencapital andexpertise areinsufficient to
reachthatgoal,multinationa lcorporations fromthecoreformjointventures and
othercollaborative unions withstateorlocalcapitalistsfromthesemiperiphery.
Then, thestatewillutilize differenttypesofrepressive strategies tokeepwageslow
andensure harsh working conditionsandpoorliving condit ions.Theserepressive
practicesexplaintheneedforandtheexistence ofthemilitarytohelpmaintain this
hierarchical structure(Shannon, 1992).
Thecorehaslongexploite dtheperiphery andmade theperiphery dependent
uponit.ThisisevenmoresosincethefalloftheSovietUnion.Someperiphe ry
countrieswereabletogeteconomicaidfromtheSoviet Union, buttheycanno
longer doso.During the20thcentury, theperiphery wasforcedtosolicit econom ic
assistance intheformofloansfromtheWestern coreandcore-controlled financial
institutions. Thus, theperiphery hasincurred alotofdebtandhasbeenforced by
thecoretorestructure itseconomic policie stofavorthecore.AsShannon (1992,
p.101)wrote,“therestructuring policieshadaprofound effectonlivingconditio ns
inthemostindebted countries.” Researchers havedocumented thatrestructure d
policies haveledtonegative impacts onchildsurvival,childhood immunization,
nutrition, economic growth, andurbanproblems (Shannon, 1992).
22 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

UseofWorldSystemsTheoryintheLiteratur e
Hall(1999) summarized different areas explored byresearchers whouseda
world systems framework. Included inhissummarizations were(a)cyclical
processesintheworld system; (b)theconsequences ofthecollapse oftheSoviet
Union; (c)cities intheworldsystems;(d)women,households,andgender
intheworldeconomy; (e)theroleofculture intheworld economy ;and
(f)subsistence. Thelatter three havestrongimplications forhuman behavior
inthesocialenvironm ent.Furthersupplyinglinkages tohuman behavio rand
thesocial environment, Kardulias (1999) stressed thattheworldsystems
perspective provides scholars from interdisciplinar yfields withaframework
forstudying differe ntcultures, pastandpresent, astheyinteract(ed) politically,
economic ally,andsocially. Theworld systems model providesaframework to
study these cultural interactions, which canbemutually beneficial, butoften
theresults wereexploitative.
Worldsystems theoryisalsoreferredtoasdependency theory.Dependen cy
theoryholdsthateconomi cdifferencesexistamongstatesinthecoreand
periphery, withstatesintheperipherydepende ntuponthemoreeconom ically
develop edstates inthecore(Santos,1971;Sunkel ,1969). Mullen ,Beller,
Remsa, andCooper (2001)wroteanarticletitled“TheEffectsofInternational
TradeonEconomic Growt handMeeting BasicHuma nNeeds,”drawingthe
connection between worldsystemstheoryandhumanneeds. McIntosh(1996)
present edstatistical evidenceontherelationshipbetweenworld-dependency
effectsandhuman needs.McIntoshexamined measuresofhumanneeds
consistin gofchildmortality,crudedeathrates,infantmortality,lifeexpectancy,
23Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Table1.3 FiveProcesses Associated WithDeepening
Commodification Theincreased producti onofgoods available asproperty tobesold,
bought, andpossessed
Mechanizatio n Theuseofmoreandbetter machinery toincreas etheoutput ofworkers
Contract ualization Theprocess offormally sanctioning andregulatingexploitation
Interdependence Thedependency betweendifferent labormarkets toproduce goods
profitable tothecore
Polarization Aschism between thecoreandtheperiphery duetodeepening ofthe
economic relationship betweenthetwo

foodavailability, andimmunization.McIntosh(1996,p.132) found that
“dependency lowers therateofeconomicgrowth,illustrating thedifficulty low-
income countries haveinescapingtheperiphery. Atthesametime,lifechances,
measuredaslifeexpectancy,infantmorta lity,andpercapitafoodavailab ility,
varied inamanner predictedbythedepend encyhypothesis.”Simply put,the
morestates intheperipherythataredepen dentuponmoreeconomically
developed states inthecore,thehighertheinfantmortality rateandtheless
foodavailable forpeopleintheperiphery.
More recent ly,world systems theory hasbeenadapted toencompas sissues of
genderandracism.Onepropone ntofworld systems theoryfound “that as
peripheralcountrieshavecometobemore integrated intotheworld economy,
women inthosecountrie shavecome tobemorerelegated totheleastrewarding
tasksintheinformal sector oftheeconomy. Men, incontrast ,increasingly
participated intheformalsectoraswagelaborers and/or inthemoreremunerative
formsofinformalsector work”(Shannon, 1992, p.188).Asaconsequence, the
lowereconomic statusofperiphery women isconnected tothese women’s
continuedhighfertility (Shannon,1992). Economic development ofperiphery
women hasexacerbated therelative status ofwomen andproduced conditions
conducivetohigherfertility,whichisthereverse ofthose forwomen inthecore
(Shannon,1992).
Otherproponents oftheworld systemsapproach havestudied theroleof
women inthehouseholds ofworld systems.Households receive fivetypesof
income, consisting ofwages, profits from market sales,rentalincome from
property, transfer payments (e.g., statewelfare benefit s),andproducts from
subsistenc eactivities (Shann on,1992). Asrevealed byShannon (1992, p.189),
“core households tendtoreceive thegreatest propor tionoftheirincome from
wages transfer payments, although eventheyreceive significant income from
theother source s.Peripheral households, incontrast, rarely canevencome
closetosurviving fromwages received. Consequently, theyemploy househ old
members inextensive nonwage income producing activities intheinformal
sector, including major subsistence activities. These patterns ofhouseh old
income production reflect thediffering rolesandrequirements intheworld
economy oftheperiphery, semiper iphery, andcore.”
Shannon(1992) discussedinterna laspects oftheperiphery,semiperiphery,
andcore. Within thecore,thecapitalistclassexercisesadisproporti onate
amoun tofinfluence butisamenabletoinfluence aslongasnoradical changes
aresoughtthatthreat enitsinterests.Asaresult,morepoliticalparticipationhas
occurredamongtheworkingmiddleclass.Shann onnotedthatthemiddleclass
inthecoreplays asignificantroleinwhoiselectedtopolitical offices.Asa
result, themiddle classcanbearupontheseelected politicianstoenactpolicies
24 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

beneficial tothemortoblockpoliciesthatarenotbeneficialtothem.From time
totime,themiddle classeswillsupportsomepolicies opposedbythecapitalist
classes. Inforeign affairs,themiddleclassisindifferent,forthemostpart,but
ithasopposed militaryactionintheperiphery when themilitaryaction didnot
endquickly, suchastheFrench’sinvolvemen tinAlgeria(Shannon, 1992).
Shannon’sargument isfurthersupportedbytheIraqwar,whichenjoyedvery
highpublicsupport atitscommence mentin2003butverylowsuppor tin2007,
asthewardragged onwithnoendinsight.
Ration aleforUseofWorldSystems Theory
Many oftheprincipal proponents ofworld systems theory areMarxists, and
theirviews ofsystem sissues, especially economicandlabordiscussions, arecritica l
innature .Butthisbook usesworld systemstheory nottocoerce students into
becoming Marxists butbecause itprovides ausefulframework forunderstanding
social institut ions,organizations, andcommunitie saswellasproblems thataffect
human needs issues thatthoseentities seektoaddress. Some ofthekeyconcepts in
world systems theory arethecore,semiperiphery, andperiphery zones, withmost
ofthepower greatest inthecorezoneandtheleastintheperipheryzone. These
zones maybeenvisioned assimilar tosocial environments. Forinstance, Shann on
(1992) usedtheconcepts ofcore,semiperiphery, andperiphery tostudyhousehold
incomes. Onecouldusethesesameconcepts toundersta ndother macro issues,
suchasfamilies, organizations, social institutions, andcommunities withinthe
core,semiperiphery, andperiphery. Further, world systems theory provide san
explanation forimmigration, which isnotanewconcept andhasbeenoccurring
sincepeople emergedonthisplanet, andterrorism, especially terrorism perpetrate d
byindividuals fromtheperiphery. Forexample, Chase-Dunn (2001) graphed a
world systems model thatresembles thegraph inFigure 1.4.
TheConnection ofWorld Systems Theory to
Macro HumanBehavior intheSocialEnvironment
Shannon’s (1992) perspective ofworld systems theory provides aconnect ion
toandunderstanding ofamacro viewofHBSE andthediscussions thatfollow.
Asyourecall from thebeginning ofthischapter, ajurorfrom asuburban
community expressed alackofknowledgeabout thelivesofpeoplewhowere
witnesses inacasethatarose fromapoorcommun ity.Ineffect, thisjurorwas
fromthecore,andthewitnesses werefromtheperiphery. Theconcepts ofcore,
25Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment

semipe riphery, andperiphery zones provide toolsforunderstanding macro
system s.Researchers havestudied households inthecore,semiperiphery, and
periphery zones. Within thesezones, researchers mayexamine urban,rural,
andinternational communit ies.So,wecould understand andprocess data
about core,semiperiphery, andperiphery zones justinurban areas, ruralareas,
orinternational areas oracross allthreeareas.
Inasimilar manner, communitiesandneighbor hoods maybeunderstood as
representing core,semiperiphery,andperipheryzones. Commun itieswithinthe
corehavemore powerandinfluencethancomm unitieswithintheperiphery,
justlikecountries withinthecorehavemore powerthancountrieswithinthe
periphery. Further, worldsystemstheoryaddressescentral issues likeconflict
(i.e.,world warsandcivilwars),emigration,andenvironm entaldegradation
26 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment
Population
Growth
Environme ntal
Degradati on
Population
Pressures
EmigrationCircumscriptio n
Conflict
Hierarchy
Formation
World
Systems
Theory
Intensif ication
Technological
Change
Figure1.4 TheEvolution ofSocieties

27Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
(Chase-Dunn, 2001; Chew,2005).Asanexample,Chew(2005) reportedthe
environmental andclimaticchangesinMesopotamia andEgyptfrom2200 BC
to700BC.Bergese nandBartely(2000)wroteachapte rforaworldsystems
bookandhadasectionentitledEnvironmenta lDegradation.Inthissection,
theyreported thatsemiperipherystateshavepermittedmore deforestation
histori callythanperiphery states(Bergesen&Bartely,2000).Immigration may
beunderstood from aworldsystemsperspective,asmaytherelocationof
businessestoMexic o,CentralAmerica,andChina andtheresulting impact on
neighbo rhoods andcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.Forthepurposes ofthis
textboo k,themacro systems areshowninFigure1.5.
Chase-Dunn (2001)declared thatallsmall andlargehuman networks from
thehousehold toglobal trade make upworld systems theory. Figure 1.5
illustrates howhuman beingsareconnected tovarious systems. Anindividual
Organizati ons
WorldCommunities HumanBeings
Social
Institutions
Figure1.5 TheMacro Perspective forThisTextbo ok

orahuman being isconnectedtohisorherfamily; groups, suchasagangor
schoolband; anorganization, such astheNational Association forthe
Advancement ofColored People ortheNationalOrganization forWomen; and
asocialorganization, suchasachurch, mosque,orsynagogue .Most humans
haveaconnection toallfoursystems shown inthefigure. They affect these
systems,andthesesystems affect them.
Thistextbookfocuse sonthemacro(socialinstitutions, organizations,and
communities) asopposed tothemicro(individuals, families,andgroups),butthe
familyisdiscussedhereasitisamajorsocial institution. Asthedepiction above
shows, however, thesesystems areinterrelated. World systems theory provid esa
framework forunderstandingtheimpact ofmacro systemsonmicro systemsand
viceversa. Taketheconcept ofdeepening,whichis,inpart,thegoverning ofsocial
andeconomi crelationsh ipsthroug hformallegalmandates. Agrowingnumbe rof
macroinstitu tionsconsisting ofstatelegislat ures(law), concerned commu nities
(communities),andlawenforc ementagencies (organizations) haveadopted and
enforced statutes tonotify thecommunity when asexoffender moves withina
neighborhoo d.Thistypeoflegislationhasbeenhailed asatooltoprotectchildren
fromsexual predators.Macro lawscanaffectmicrosystems,andtheselaws’impact
onmicro systemsisnebulous andmaybeineffective (Cohen, 2003). Forinstance,
thelawthatoutlawed drinkingalcoholin1919, theVolsteadActorProhibition,
provided theeconomic basefororganizedcrimeinAmerica (Jensen, 2000). Further,
whenProhibition wasrepealed,itledtoasurgeinviolence(Jensen, 2000).Thesex
offender lawhasledtosometi mesdeadlyphysicalassaults onindividual offenders
(Prentky, 1996). Moreimportant,research hasfailedtosupport thehypothesisthat
communit ynotification protectschildrenfromsexual predators (Berliner, 1996).
Some researchers haveevenpostulated thatcommunity notificationmight lead
parentstobelessvigilantinprotectingtheirchildren because thesexual abuse of
children ismorelikely tooccur fromrelative s,friends, andtrusted community
officials(i.e.,coaches,priests, teachers,etc.)(Redlich, 2001).
Atthesametime,macro systemshaveundoubtedly hadapositive effect on
micro systems, suchasindividuals andfamilies. Congress, amacro system,had
atremendous positive effect onalleviating thedestitution ofindividuals during
theGreat Depression inthe1930s .Inthe1960s ,Congress passed lawscreating
Medicare andMedicaid—progr amstoprovide healthcareforthepoorand
elderly persons.
President Barack ObamaIllustrating theConceptual Framework
In2008, amajority ofAmericanvoterselected BarackObama asthe44th
PresidentoftheUnitedStates,thefirstAfricanAmericantobeelectedtothe
28 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

29Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Presidency. Inreality ,PresidentObama isbiracialashismotherwasWhiteand
reared inKansas andhisfatherwasAfricanandfromKenya. President Obama
represent snumerous themesandconceptsreflectedinthistextbook.Principally,
thisbookisabout humanneedsandhowtheseneedsareaddressedornot
addressedbymacro socialinstitutions.Forinstance,PresidentObama disclosed
thatwhen hewasachild,hismotherreceivedfoodstamps(Severson,2008).As
atwice-divorced woman,PresidentObama’s motherreceivedhelpfrom her
parentsaswellastempora ryassistance through thefoodstamp sprogram
(Fornek, 2007). Inonecampaignspeech,PresidentObamarecalled when
discussin ghismother that“thereweretimesthatshedidn’thaveenoughmoney
forgroceries. Andeventhoughshewasveryproud andveryindependent,there
wereacouple oftimesgrowingupwhere sheacceptedfoodstampstomakesure
wehadenough foodonthetable.Itwastough.Anditwasprettymuch tough
allthewaythrough myteenageyears”(Levey,2008, p.A-22).Because ofthese
family difficulties, PresidentObama stated thathismaternalgrandparents
helpedrearhim,andduringhiscampaign,heoften discussedpublicly his
grandmother. Moreover,PresidentObam arelatedthathismotherhaddiedof
cancer, andbefore herdeathheheardheronthetelepho nearguingwithher
insuran cecompany aboutpayingforhertreatme nt.
President Obama, during thetimehewasaHarvard lawstudentinthe1980s,
worked asthedirector oftheDevelop ingCommu nities ProjectonChicago’s
South Sideasacomm unityorganiz er.Hewas24years oldwhen hewashired
andwaspaid$13,000 ayearinadditio nto$2,000forasecondhan dcar
(Moberg, 2007).Afterhisgraduation fromlawschool,hecontin uedforaperiod
engaging incommunity organi zing. AttheRepublicanconventi on,Rudolph
Giulia niandSarahPalinridiculed thenominationofPresident Obama bythe
Democra ts,noting thathehadworked asacommunityorganizer(Malk in,2008;
York, 2008).Years earlier,apublic schooladministrative aidehadasked
PresidentObamawhyhewaswasting histimebeing acommuni tyorganizer
when hewasstudyin glawatsuchaneliteschool.Presid entObama(1990 )
related thewoman’squestion andhisresponseandexplanation inhischapter
“Why Organiz e?Problems andPromise intheInnerCity” inPegKnoepfle’s
book, AfterAlinsky:Commun ityOrgani zinginIllinois.
Inhischapter, PresidentObama (1990) discussed theneedsoftheurbanand
inner-city poorandhowdifficulttheseneedsaretoaddress.Henoted thatthe
election ofaminority mayor ,suchasMayorRichardHatcherinGary, Indiana,
orMayor Harold WashingtoninChicago,doesnotmean thatproblems or
needswillbeeasily addressed.Acommunit yorganizer,accordingtoPresident
Obama,isvitalinbringingtogetherchurches,blockclubs, parentgroups, and
anyother institutions inagivencommuni tytopaydues,hireorganizers,engage
inresearch, develop leadership,holdrallies, andconduct educationcampaigns.

Theoretically, comm unityorganizingoffersaprocessforsynthesizingmultiple
strategies forempoweringneighborhoo ds.Comm unity organizingassumes
(a)thattheproblems ofinner-citycommunities arenotcausedbythelackof
effective solutions butbythelackofpowertoemployneededsolutions,(b)that
thesolewayforcommun itiestocreateenduringpower istoorganize peopleand
moneytoward acommon vision,and(c)thataviableorganizationcanonlybe
created when abroad lybasedindigenousleadership, notoneortwoinspiring
leaders, molds thediverseinterestsofitslocalinstitutions(Obama, 1990).These
activities arenecessa rytodevelopplanstoaddress anassortmentofissues,such
assecuring jobs,improvingeducation,andfightingcrimes (Obama,1990).
Likethistextbo ok,in1990Presiden tObama discussedanumber ofmacro social
institutions, suchascommunitie s,churches,thenewsmedia, schools ,thepolitical
system,andorganizations, within hisbriefbookchapter. President Obama (1990)
notedthatblatantdiscrimination hasbeenreplace dbyinstitutionalracism, that
compa niescannotcompete internationally bybasingthemselv esintheinnercities
withtheirmultitud eofproblems,andthatthemany stressorsonfamiliesmake
volunteering bythesefamiliesextremelydifficult. Inhis2007articleabout President
Obama ,DavidMoberg disclosedanumber ofsocial institutions reflective of
President Obama’ shistory, includinghisworkwithfaith-bas edorganizat ions,
neighborhoo ds,andgroups.Accordi ngtoMoberg (2007) ,PresidentObama had
helpedtrainindigenous residentstobecome leaders, addressedlandfillsnearsome
Chicagohousingprojects, helpedwinemployment training services,helped create
playgrounds ,helped create after-scho olprograms ,andhelped organized residents
deman dtheremoval ofasbestos intheirapartments andotherpublicamenities.
AtPresident Obam a’sinauguration,anumber ofballswerecondu ctedthat
evening,andthefirstwascalledtheNeigh borhoodInauguralBall,reflecting the
inclusion ofneighborhood sandcommunit iesinthisfestiveoccasion.
Reportedly, many oftheattendeesattheNeighborhood InauguralBallwere
poorand/or homeless ,andtheywereprovidedwithgowns andtuxedostowear
atnocharge,along withtherentingofrooms attheMarriot thotelatnocharge
(Montet, 2009). TheStaffordFoundation provid edmuch oftheassistanceto
theunderprivileged attendingtheNeighborho odInaugur alBall.According to
itsWebsite,“theStaffordFoundationisafaith-basednon-profit organization
founded onpromot ingtheprinciplesofJesusChrist.Wearefocusedon
bringing people ofgoodwilltogethertohelptheunderse rved,themarginali zed
andthedistressed andassistingtheminhelping thems elves,andeventuallyto
helpothers.Webelievethatbyinvestinginthehopesanddreams,theabilities
andthepotential ofthelessprivileged,ourcommunit iesandournationwill
benefit.Forinthebankoflifeisnotgoodthatinvestment which surelypaysthe
highestandmostcherisheddividends?”(TheStafford Found ation,2009,p.1).
These macrosocial institutionsarereflectedinthefollowing chapters.
30 HumanBehavior intheSocial Environment

CONCLU SION
Thischapter began withadiscussion ofhowsome individuals liveinone
environment andhave noideaabouttheenvironments inwhich other
individuals live,although these environments maybeonlyafewmiles apart.
However, disturbances inoneenvironment mayhave animpact onother
environments, regard lessofthedistancebetween them. Thischapter defined
social work andtherequirements ofHBSE courses, including CSWE’s mandate
thatinternational content beincludedwithin social workcourses. Weprovided
adepiction oftheconnection ofindividuals toother systems andstated thatthe
focus ofthisbook ismacro HBSE, consisting primarily ofsocial instituti ons,
organizations, andcommunities, broadly speaking. Inaddition ,adiscuss ion
wasprovided involving human rights andhowtheviolation ofhuman rights
fallswithin HBSE. Theworld systems perspective wasoffered asaconcep tual
framework appropriate forunderstanding macro institutions’ impact on
individuals. Finally ,thischapter discussed President Barack Obama’s earlylife
andhislifeasayoung community organizer toshow thenumerous macro
social institutions reflected inhislifeandhiswork.
KeyTerms andConcepts
31Introduction toHuman Behavior intheSocial Environment
Broadening
Community attachment
Coresocieties
Council onSocial Work Education (CSWE)
Deepening
Human rights
Justsociety
Macro
Micro
Needs
Periphery societies
Semiperiphery societies
Social environment
Social functioning
Social work
Structural violence
Universal Declaration ofHumanRights
Unjust society
World systems theory