April 30, 2019

Newsletter • 2019 • vol.1 • 1-20

http://pharmacologyonline.silae.it
ISSN: 1827-8620
REVIEW ON MEDICINAL POTENTIAL OF ALKALOIDS AND SAPONINS
Gopiesh Khanna Venkatesan*; Amutha Kuppusamy; Saravanan Devarajan; Ashok Kumar Krishna
Kumar
Department of Biotechnology, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies (VISTAS), Vels
University, Pallavaram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India -600117

Email address: [email protected]*


Abstract
Natural products are continuing to prove as a vital source of medicinally useful drug lead molecules.
Although synthetic organic chemistry has achieved several milestones in human health improvement, due to
several biological disadvantages, all synthetic chemistry are now using natural products as lead molecules /
skeletal base for drug development. Among the medicinally significant natural products, alkaloids and
saponins are known for their unique medicinal properties. The alkaloid is well known for its antibiotic and
therapeutic applications, as many of the market available drugs and compounds are alkaloidal in nature.
Saponins are generally known for its toxic property, with recent evidence of therapeutic possibilities,
opening a new path for the medicinal research. This review focuses on the nature and potential of alkaloids
and saponins as medicinally valuable compounds and summarizes some of the recent reports that describe
the significance of the same. Although several works are being carried out on medicinal plants and beneficial
microbes to identify their bioactivity and constituents, the majority of the pharmaceutical research is still at
the crude extract stage, due to two reasons; complexity in purification of individual component due to
quantity or quality, or due to symbiotic activity exhibited by more than one component in the same source.
Hence, most of the scientific publications on pharmaceutical research, are still at the preliminary phase in the
generalized activity of a plant or a microbe.
Keywords: Natural products; alkaloids; saponins; medicinal properties.

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Introduction
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are probably the most bioactive
phytochemical of all, with the potential to control
gene expression, protein inhibition, and
biochemical reactant. The key significant feature
of alkaloid is the presence of nitrogen ’N’ atom in
its skeleton structure. An appropriate description
of alkaloid is ‘heterocyclic structure, consisting of
a nitrogen atom within the ring structure’. Figure.1
shows the skeleton structure of caffeine - a classic
alkaloid molecule. Presence of two or more types
of cyclic hydrocarbon structure, i.e., 5 carbon, 6
carbon, or 7 carbon ring structure, with the
presence of ‘N’ nitrogen atom within the cyclic
skeleton makes it an alkaloid. Although alkaloids
are majorly derived from amino acid metabolism,
other sources also contribute to the synthesis and
metabolism of alkaloids. Alkaloids are divided into
three categories such as true alkaloids,
protoalkaloids, and pseudoalkaloids. The
compound which derived from amino acid and
consist of a heterocyclic ring structure with
nitrogen atom represent true alkaloids. The
compound with N atom obtained from an amino
acid represents protoalkaloids. The compound
with the basic carbon skeletons which is not
derived from amino acids represents
pseudoalkaloids [1]. Alkaloids have the ability to
act as a drug for anticancer, antimalarial and they
include chemical compounds such as sulphur (S),
oxygen (O), phosphate (P), and chlorine (Cl) [2].
Most of the alkaloids accommodate
dihydropyrimidine which is backbones of calcium
channel and they are secluded from sources like
batzelladine alkaloids that are addressed to be
effective HIV-gp-120-CD4 inhibitors [3].
Alkaloids serve as a hefty and structurally
diversified group of secondary metabolites. They
are structurally more analogous to some plant
growth hormones. The existence of nitrogen in
atomic construction consults that biological
activity for this compound is tremendous [4].
Alkaloids play a substantial role in the metabolism
and functional activities of an organism. Alkaloids
are able to modify gene expression, due to their
ability to bind and/or chelate with DNA. Alkaloids
are physiologically effective in mammals, including
humans. Natural and synthetic alkaloids also
known to function as narcotics. Alkaloids
contribute as the main bioactive component of
medicinal plant and also plays a very crucial role in
the immune systems of animals and plants [5]. In
traditional Chinese medicine, alkaloids were used
as active compounds which have divergent
biological activities. An extensive number of
innate alkaloids may be molecular complexes
derived from nucleic acid structures [6]. Because
of their structural foible, alkaloids have relatively
higher bioactive potential than the other classes of
phytochemicals.
In addition to alkaloids derived from plants and
microbes from terrestrial ambiance, the recent
trend has taken attention on the marine source
derived alkaloids. Marine alkaloids were initially
identified from Agelas sponges and their synthetic
analogs retain amply studied as inhibitors of
bacterial biofilm formation and as antibacterial,
antifungal and antiprotozoal agents [7]. Hundreds
of secondary metabolites have been reported
from marine sponges, with predominant chemical
compounds exclusively belonging to the pyrrole-
imidazole alkaloids family. This pyrrole-imidazole
alkaloid is an extended family of metabolites
exclusively found in marine sponges and are highly
bioactive in nature [8]. Marine alkaloids are
undoubtedly noble secondary metabolites, aiding
to their novelty and complexity in structure and
biological activity. Many marine alkaloids have
entered and experienced several phases of human
clinical trials for therapeutic use against particular
types of cancers. Bryostatins, eribulin, plitidepsin,
and trabectedin these are the compounds used in
various phases of clinical trials [9].
A frequent biosynthetic origin of alkaloid is the
tyrosine mediated pathway initially identified from
divergent plant metabolites known as
benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. Due to their
heightened potential in pharmacological activities,
and natural accumulation in plants that are used in
traditional medicine and cultural practices [10].
Fusarium proliferatum convert manzamine
alkaloids to irrelevant manzamine metabolites via
hydrolysis, reduction, and a retro Pictet-Spengler
reaction. The propagation of tetrahydro-β-
carboline and tetrahydroisoquinoline ring systems
is mainly by the Pictet-Spengler reaction. In the

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biosynthesis of alkaloids, this reaction mainly
involved from tryptophan including, the
manzamine alkaloids [11]. Biological studies
demonstrate apoptosis-inducing potential of
Tribulus terrestris alkaloid extract on Jurkat E6-1
cancer cell line. At a sub-lethal concentration of
alkaloids extract treated in Jurkat cells exhibit
DNA fragmentation, augmentation in caspase-3
activity and phosphatidylserine translocation
correlated to control cells [12].
Natural Sources of Alkaloids
Plants serve as a major source of bioactive
alkaloids, while still unparallel series of bioactive
alkaloids have been reported from microbial
sources as well. Recent evidence also proves that
alkaloids could also be extracted from the animal
kingdom. The plants are believed to be an
effective source of alkaloids in comparison to the
animal kingdom [13]. Alkaloids are an essential
part of the biological metabolism. Hence, the
source of alkaloids could be majorly generalized to
all plants and microbial organisms, with countless
reports in scientific studies. Some recent evidence
of biological sources of alkaloids is summarized as
follows. The most prevalent biologically active
compound alkaloid is found within the Solanaceae
family. The Solanaceae family is a widespread
species which are rich in alkaloid content, with
reported presence of tropane alkaloids,
glycoalkaloids, pyrrolizidine and indole alkaloids
that are naturally produced as a defense
mechanism against insects and predators. The
tropane alkaloids contain pharmacologically
valuable properties but can also be noxious [14].
A rich source of alkaloids is found in marine
sponges genus such as Latrunculia, Batzella,
Prianos, and Zyzzyare, majorly constructed on
pyrroloiminoquinone ring system [9]. Naturally
materializing indole alkaloids such as beta-
carbolines, are found in plants and animal tissues.
These alkaloids are distinguished by a core indole
structure combined with a pyridine ring. Alkaloids
are extensive in our environment, diets and can
also be composed endogenously that are initially
recognized from the plant sources, e.g. Peganum
harmala [15]. Natural compounds from marine
organisms such as neurosteroidal alkaloid isolated
from jellyfish act as an effective anti-AChE agent
with strong inhibition potential, by binding to the
catalytic site of acetylcholinesterase [16].
Endophytic fungi act as dominant resources for
structurally particular bioactive metabolites such
as alkaloids, benzopyranones, benzoquinones,
flavonoids, phenols, steroids, and xanthones [17].
These endophytic fungi have proven to serve as a
source for several pharmaceutical applications.
Lycium shawii and Phyllanthus emblica seeds
hold an enormous amount of active
phytochemicals like alkaloids, phenolic
compounds, tannins, and flavonoids, with key
studies focusing on alkaloids of this seeds [18].
Several alkaloids were identified in flowers of
Tecomella undulate that are biologically efficient
alkaloids [2]. Rich sources of natural bioactive
compounds alkaloids are found in herbal based
beverages such as tea, wine, beer, etc., [19]. Some
of the important bioactive compounds present in
herbal teas include carotenoids, phenolic acids,
flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, polyacetylenes,
saponins, and terpenoids.
Saponins
Saponins are complex phytochemical
molecules, consisting of two key moieties. A
lipophilic sapogenin moiety and a hydrophilic
sugar moiety, combination of which contribute to
the characteristic soapy / detergent nature of
Saponins. The structural description of saponin
would be ‘Combination of a lipophilic sapogenin
moiety with one or more hydrophilic sugar
moiety’. Originally saponins are identified and
studied from plants, with recent reports on
occurrences in other natural sources. Figure.2
provides a description of the skeleton structure of
a saponin, with Chonglou saponin as an example.
Saponins are a complex combination of
triterpene glycosides with a broad spectrum of
biological properties such as antifungal,
insecticidal, phytotoxic, allelopathic, and
hemolytic activity [20].
A divergent group of biologically functional
products in the plant are triterpene saponin, which
exhibits broad structural variety. Saponins are
responsible for the tenacious astringency tastes of
soybean. DDMP (2, 3- dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-
methyl-4H-pyran-4-one) saponins have been
proven to control dietary hypercholesterolemia,

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suppression of colon cancer cell proliferation,
antiperoxidation of lipids and liver-protecting
action by the acceleration of secretion of thyroid
hormones.[21] Paris polyphylla root is a natural
product that shows admirable and decent sources
for the pharmaceutical development of anticancer
drugs. Saponins of different herbs are known to
induce apoptosis in many cancer cells. Paris
saponin VII a kind of steroidal saponins from the
root of P. polyphylla, on the human cervical cancer
cell line Hela and the potential for the treatment
of cervical cancer [22]. The saponin fraction
isolated from the roots of Gypsophila paniculata L.
and Gypsophila arrest Guss represented as Merck
Saponin and digitonin was used to scrutinize our
knowledge of the interaction among amphiphilic
glycosides and cell membranes. These saponins
include structural motifs that are similar to
membrane sterols and exhibit a higher affinity for
cholesterol compared to phosphatidylglycerols
[23].
Natural Sources of Saponins
Plants and algae are the major sources of
Saponin, with rare reports from microbial sources.
Affluent sources of saponins are found in an array
of plant species such as Chlorophytum
borivilianum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Panax ginseng,
Bacopa monnieri and, Ilex paraguariensis. These
plants possess immunomodulatory, antidiabetic,
gesticulatory, antimicrobial, insecticidal, and
androgenic activities primarily associated with the
immense quantity of saponins present in the
plants [24]. A wide diversity of saponins are
reported from plants such as Yucca schidigera,
Quillaja Saponaria, Acacia auriculiformins, Sapindus
saponaria, Sesbania sesban, and Medicago sativa
[25]. The leguminous plant of Lessertia frutescent
showed the presence of saponins cardiac
glycosides. Saponins are present in high quantity
in the aerial parts of such leguminous plant [26].
Some of the recent reports of Saponin based
bioactivities are as follows; Phaleria macrocarpa is
used as traditional medicine in Indonesia for
medical conditions such as cancer, diabetes
mellitus, allergies, liver and heart diseases, kidney
failure, blood diseases, high blood pressure,
stroke, various skin diseases, itching, aches, and
flu. The hefty amount of saponin glycosides
existing in P.macrocarpa can devote to the plant's
bioactivities such as anti-oxidant and cytotoxicity
[27]. Pteropyrum scoparium is a medicinally
essential plant and it is used to cure dyspepsia and
blood purifying agent. The several bioactive
compounds found in this plant such as
anthraquinones, and Saponins [28].
Panax ginseng of Araliaceae family is a perennial
herbaceous plant which contains polyacetylenes,
polysaccharides, peptidoglycans, phenolic
compounds, and saponins. Isopentenyl
diphosphate can be synthesized through the
mevalonate pathway in the cytosol and it is a
universal precursor for Triterpene saponins,
including ginsenosides [29]. Azadirachta indica
belongs to the Meliaceae family and that contains
biologically important alkaloids and saponins. Due
to its unparallel pharmacological activities, it is one
of the most valued medicinal plant in India [30].
Among the significant traditional Chinese
herbs, Astragalus membranaceus Bge. var.
mongolicus of Leguminosae family is well known
for its high bioactivity. It produces diverse
secondary metabolites such as triterpene
saponins. The genes in MVA and non-MVA
pathways were differentially articulate among
three tested tissues, indicating the parallel but
fractionally divided biosynthesis pathways of IPP
and DMAPP in A. mongolicus in triterpene saponin
biosynthesis [31]. The Panax notoginseng plant of
Araliaceae family is a pharmaceutically essential
plant which contains a significant amount of
triterpene saponins. The transcripts encrypt the
critical enzymes of Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase,
squalene epoxidase and dammarenediol synthase
in this plant play imperative roles in triterpene
saponin biosynthesis [32].
Barbarea vulgaris is a wild crucifier of the
Brassicaceae family and it is only species which is
cost-effective and are able to produce saponins.
These saponins play a role in defense against biotic
antagonists. Monoglucosylated 3-O-β-D-Glc
hederagenin, produced in vitro by
glycosyltransferases functions contrary to
Phyllotreta nemorum professed 3-O-glucosylation
Saponin, suggesting variation in activity through
the mode of synthesis [33]. In Medicago truncatula,
saponin is the essential biologically active
secondary metabolite [20].

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Anti-Bacterial Activity of Alkaloids
The antibacterial activity being the most
prevalently studied biological activity, a countless
number of scientific reports are available proving
the antibacterial nature of alkaloids compounds,
of both natural and synthetic origins. Some of the
recent reports on antibacterial activities of
alkaloids are summarized in Table.1, that are
discussed in this review.
Allium sativum, Bunium persicum, Oryza sativa,
and Triticum aestivum are traditionally used anti-
mastitis plants shows antibacterial activity against
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and
Staphylococcus aureus. Alkaloids of Allium sativum,
Bunium persicum, Oryza sativa, and Triticum
aestivum showed strong bacterial inhibition zones
as compared to crude Flavonoid and Saponin
extract [34]. Inula cuspidate is used as folk
medicines like a tonic, stomachic, anti-
inflammatory, bactericidal, diuretic, diaphoretic,
hepatoprotective, antitumor and carminative. Due
to the presence of a rich source of alkaloid based
secondary metabolites, the plant extracts show
significant antibacterial activity [35]. The
antibacterial activity of plants such as Curcuma
xanthorrhiza, Ocimum sanctum, Senna alata,
Kaempferia pandurata, Zingiber officinale, Moringa
oleifera, Tamarindus indica, and Pangium edule
studied against methicillin -resistant
Staphylococcus aureus. These plants consist
significant amount of alkaloids, among which
Senna alata leaf extract exhibits the highest
significance of activity [36]. The Calophyllum
tomentosum extract consists of alkaloids, that are
believed to be responsible for the inhibition of α-
glucosidase activity, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant,
anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-
tyrosinase activity [37].
Antibacterial secondary metabolite alkaloids
such as Marinoazepinone A, Marinoazepinone B,
Marinoaziridine A, Marinoaziridine A,
Marinoquinoline G, Marinoquinoline H,
Marinoquinoline I, Marinopyrazinone A,
Marinopyrazinone B, Marinoquinoline A,
Marinoquinoline C, Marinoquinoline D,
Marinoquinoline K and Marinoquinoline were
isolated from two strains of marine bacteria M.
alkaloidigena and C. alkaloidigena [38].
Gracilaria verrucosa seaweed is an effective
antibacterial source containing an alkaloid,
compounds. This seaweed showed antibacterial
activity against Aeromonas hydrophila,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida
and had weak antibacterial activity against Vibrio
harveyi and Vibrio algynoliticus bacteria.[39]
Enterolobium contortisiliquum is a seed bark to
estimate its antibacterial activity and is a potent
antibiotic against strains of Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli.[40]
Aconiti Lateralis containing alkaloids was used in
traditional Chinese medicine for treatment of
Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. In
Staphylococcus aureus, there is a signifying
reluctant growth and metabolism by the Aconitum
alkaloid treatment [41].
Cienfuegosia digitata Cav. is an herbal medicinal
plant used as traditional medicine in Burkina Faso.
This plant is rich in saponins and alkaloids
compounds with strong potential as a broad-
spectrum antimicrobial agent. The alkaloids
compounds present in this plant have the
antibacterial activity against β- lactamase
producing Methicillin and Ampicillin-resistants
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA / ARSA) [42]. Several
alkaloids were identified from marine organisms
such as marine invertebrates, microbes, fishes and
microalgae. These alkaloids consist of both
alkaloid secondary metabolite and small peptide
molecules, with strong anti-bacterial activity
against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant
pathogens [43].
The stem bark and root extracts of Thalictrum
rhyncocarpum contain glycosides and alkaloids
with antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Mycobacterium
vaccae. The plant T. orientale exhibited anti-
microbial activity against Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella gallinarum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Klebsiella pneumonia, and Candida albicans. This
antibacterial activity is claimed to be due to the
large number of alkaloids present in
T.rhyncocarpum. Additionally T. rhycocarpum, has
been used extensively in traditional medicine to
treat stomach ulcers, snake bites, dysentery, and
skin rashes due to the presence of bioactive
alkaloids [44]. Evodia rutaecarpa is a bitter herb

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used in traditional Chinese medicine, proven to
contain limonoids and alkaloids with antibacterial
activities against E.coli and S.aureus. The
antibacterial examination suggested limonoids
had greater antibacterial properties than alkaloids,
and that indoloquinazoline alkaloids had greater
antibacterial activities than quinolone alkaloids
[45].
Marine sponges are the rich source of bioactive
compounds with divergent function. They are
claimed to be the sources of the non-traditional
anti-bacterial agent. Pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids
produced by these marine sponges are proven to
inhibit biofilm formation and suppress antibiotic
resistance against the Gram -negative
Acinetobacter baumannii and Gram-positive
methicillin-resistant S.aureus. It is strongly
believed that marine sponges derived alkaloids
may probably serve as an eminently useful source
of scaffolds for non-traditional anti-bacterial
access [46]. These marine alkaloids could lead to
the development of novel antibacterial drugs in
the future.
Anti-Parasitic Activity of Alkaloids
Parasitic diseases are majorly caused in human
as well as an animal which cause a significant fiscal
loss. Protozoan induced diseases being one of the
major health problem faced by Asian countries,
these anti-parasitic studies are quite common in
India and China. Alkaloids have proven their
effectiveness as a significant anti-parasitic agent in
several clinically important parasitic diseases.
Some of the recent reports on this are summarized
in Table.2 that is discussed in this review.
The antiparasitic plants of the Asteraceae family
are proven to be effective in the treatment of
parasites and that it can inhibit the progression of
protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium,
Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and intestinal worms.
Asteraceae is recognized for its alkaloid content.
Some of the FDA-approved nature-derived drugs
that emanate from Asteraceae as antiparasitics
are; Arteether, Artemether, Artemisinin,
Artesunate, Coarsucam, Co -Artemether,
Dihydroartemisinin, And Santonin [53].
Praziquantel is a drug which is used to cure the
parasitic infection schistosomiasis. In the
developmental assay, ergot alkaloids are able to
modulate the schistosomules. Ergot alkaloids have
been used clinically in a range of treatment such as
a migraine, obstetrics, Parkinson’s disease, and
diabetes [54]. A divergent group of the compound
in ergot alkaloids with beneficial therapeutic
effect used as anthelmintic drug design that
integrates deleterious antiparasitic activity.
Ergotamine declined fatality, parasite load, and
intestinal egg counts but the organ pathology also
abates through engagement of host G protein-
coupled receptor that suppressed hepatic stellate
cell activation, inflammatory damage, and fibrosis.
Ergotamine drug is used to treat migraines,
strongly interacted with the target protein.
Ergotamine is used to treat infected mice that
eliminated the parasites and decrease the organ
damage induced by the infection [55].
The traditional Mexican medicinal plant
Laennecia confusa and Asteraceae has potential
benefit as antibacterial, antifungal, anti-
inflammatory, and antiparasitic agent [56]. These
plants proved to contain bioactive alkaloids, that
contributes towards the reported activities.
Pelliciera rhizophorae is a potential antiparasitic
anti protozoan with high selectivity to the parasite
and low cytotoxicity to the host [57]. Single-celled
parasites disease like malaria, leishmaniasis, and
Chagas disease were reported to be treated by
Colombian sponges Verongula rigida, that also
claims to contain antimicrobial, anti-enzymatic,
cytotoxic and antiparasitic activities [58].
Didemnidines and two indole spermidine alkaloids
were isolated from the Didemnum sp. Didemnidine
exhibit moderate antiparasitic activity against the
malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum [4].
A potent antiinfective and antiparasitic 2, 3-
dihydro-1H-indolizinium chloride were isolated
from Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. glandulosa.
Ethanol extract of Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var.
glandulosa showed less in vitro antiinfective and
antiparasitic activities [59]. Alkaloids from marine
invertebrates shown powerful bioactivity in
multiple antiparasitic screening studies, with the
greatest potency against T. brucei and P.
falciparum [60]. Albizia schimperiana Oliv is a tree
which is used as an indigenous treatment for
bacterial and parasitic infections, like malaria,
pneumonia, pain relief and fever. The alkaloid
portion in MeOH extract of Albizia gummifera stem

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bark maintained significant activities such as
antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antitrypanosomal, and
mosquito larvicidal [61].
Anti-Diabetic Activity of Alkaloids
Diabetes mellitus is a combination of metabolic
disorders distinguishes by the existence of a
chronic hyperglycemia due to defective insulin or
insulin secretion [66]. Medicinal plants play a
major role in the management of diabetes mellitus
[67]. The leaves of Caylusea abyssinica contains
glycosides, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids,
polysaccharides, and saponins, which are
repeatedly involved in having an anti-diabetic
effect. C. abyssinica shows a significant
antidiabetic effect in rodents, providing evidence
for the Ethiopian folklore medicine. Alkaloids are
claimed to be significant for this observed
antidiabetic activity [66].
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. is an Indian traditional
medicine, is used to cure fevers, abdomen pain,
palpitation of the heart, urinary troubles,
melancholia, anorexia, dyspepsia, diabetes, and
diarrhea [68]. The stem bark of Aegle marmelos
Correa has antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic and
antioxidant activity. It is proven to contain
umbelliferone β-D-galactopyranoside. The
umbelliferone β-D-galactopyranoside posses an
antidiabetic, antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic
effect on the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat
decreases elevated blood glucose in diabetic rats.
The umbelliferone β -D-galactopyranoside
treatment has increased the level of good
cholesterol, triglycerides, VLDL, LDL cholesterol
and decreased the level of HDL cholesterol and
liver Malondialdehyde [68].
Catharanthus roseus is an Ayurvedic medication
used in countries like India, South Africa, China and
Malaysia for the healing of diabetes mellitus.
Ethanol extract of C. roseus has proven to exhibit a
significant anti hyperglycemic activity in STZ-
induced diabetic rats. Roots and leaves of this
plant contain more than 100 alkaloids. The
significantly important group of alkaloids from this
plants are identified as vinblastine and vincristine
[69]. The leaves and roots of Uvaria chamae exhibit
a strong presence of alkaloids. The hydroethanolic
root extract of Uvaria chamae has demonstrated
strong antidiabetic and hypolipidemic activities in
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [70].
Trigonella foenum-graecum is a medicinal herb
possesses diverse biological activities and
pharmacological functions. It contains steroids
and alkaloids that were traditionally used in the
treatment of diabetes including high cholesterol,
inflammation, and gastrointestinal ailments.
Ethanol extract of T. foenum-graecum seed
significantly decreased blood glucose level in
alloxan-induced rats [71]. The ethanol extract of
Brucea javanica seed contains alkaloids,
polyphenols, and flavonoids. B.javanica seed
extract demonstrated significant antidiabetic
activity diabetes-induced rat models [72].
Plants belonging to families such as
Leguminoseae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Asteraceae, Moraceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
and Araliaceae have proven to contain antidiabetic
activity. They contain alkaloids as their key
bioactive ingredient. Peroxisome proliferators-
activated receptors have the potential gamma
partial analogs 12 molecules from these extracts
known to have antidiabetic activity. So far
Metformin is the only drug approved for
treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus derived from
a medicinal plant [73].
Anti-Bacterial Activity of Saponins
Saponins, in general, are reported to be
significant antibacterial agents, and several plants
are claimed to be antibacterial in nature, due to
the presence of complex Saponins. Table.3
summarizes some of the recent reports on the
antibacterial activity of saponins, discussed in this
review.
An affluent source of saponins is present in an
array of plant species such as Colocasia esculenta,
Triumfetta pentandra, Canarium schweinfurthii and
Annona muricata exhibit broad-spectrum
antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter
aerogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and
Providencia stuartii [74].
Sesbania grandiflora is a tree belonging to
Fabaceae family that contains a significant amount
of bioactive saponins. The leaf extract of S.
grandiflora display confirmation of high anti-
bacterial activity and anti-biofilm property against

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S. aureus. It is used as a traditional medicine to
treat nasal catarrah, nyctalopia, and cephalagia. It
is also recognized as an antioxidant, anti-arthritic,
antiuroithiatic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsive,
anti-helminthic, and anxiolytic activity [75]. The
antibacterial activity of plants such as Anethum
graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare and
Trachyspermum ammi belonging to the family
Umbelliferae reported against Staphylococcus
aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhimurium, Shigella flexneri are claimed to be
due to bioactive saponin content present in them
[50].
The Artemisia chamaemelifolia of Asteraceae
family is known for its ability to produce secondary
metabolites such as Saponins and alkaloids. A.
chamaemelifolia has been used as an antiparasitic,
antifungal, antitumor, antihelminthic agent, it is
also known as an antibacterial plant with activity
against Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhimurium,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Listeria
monocytogenes [76]. Commelina nudiflora has
potential in-vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial
activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Escherichia coli. This plant C. nudiflora is a perennial
herb belonging to the Commelinaceae family
consist of important bioactive clusters of Saponins
and alkaloids contributing towards the observed
activity [77].
The antibacterial activities of Cameroonian
medicinal plants Albizia adianthifolia, Alchornea
laxiflora, Boerhavia diffusa, Combretum hispidum,
Laportea ovalifolia and Scoparia dulcis against
multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial
strains such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia
coli, and Providencia stuartii. The most significant
antibacterial activity among these plants was
recorded with bark and root extracts of A.
adianthifolia as well as with L. ovalifolia. These
plants consist of a diverse group of saponins,
contributing to the antibacterial activity [78].
Cestrum nocturnum belonging to the Solanaceae
family has been used in the treatment of burn and
swelling, as an analgesic and bactericidal, local
anesthetic, cardiac arrhythmic, and for its
inhibitory effect on the central nervous system,
tumor inhibition, and antioxidant ability. The
bactericidal activity of Cestrum nocturnum plant
was observed against Citrobacter, Salmonella
typhi, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli,
Proteus vulgaris, and Vibrio cholera is believed to
be contributed due to the presence of saponins
[79].
In the traditional Chinese medicine, Callistemon
viminalis belonging to family Myrtaceae is known
for its Saponin content is used for treating
hemorrhoids and consists of antibacterial activity
against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia
coli, Sarcina lutea, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
Salmonella typhi [80]. Mentha piperita, Portulaca
oleracea, and Raphanus sativus these are a
medicinal plant that contains antioxidant,
antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral,
immunostimulant and detoxification activities.
These plants exhibit antibacterial activity
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes,
Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtillis, and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa [81].
The liquid decoctions and the homogenized
root of Paullinia pinnata are used in Nigeria, Togo
and Ghana conventional medicine for treating
inflammation, lesion, snake bites and more
diseases like erectile dysfunction, malaria,
dysentery, menstrual pain, and coughs. Due to the
presence of alkaloid, triterpene saponins, and a
glycoside, P. pinnata exhibit strong antibacterial
activity against the Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeriginosa,
Shigella dysenteriae, and Clostridium tetani.[82].
Anti-Parasitic Activity of Saponins
The Parasitic diseases such as malaria and
leishmaniasis that affects a major public of the
world global population. Saponins have proven to
be a vital source in many anti-parasitic studies.
Some of the literature discussed in this review are
summarized in Table.4. Leishmaniasis is caused by
protozoan Leishmania parasites which are
transferred by sand flies. Maesa balansae
methanolic extract were evaluated against drug-
sensitive visceral Leishmania strains. M. lanceolata,
M. sinensis, M. crassifolia, M. tomentella, and M.
balansae. These plants show antileishmanial
potential against Leishmania donovani and
Leishmania infantum [83]. Pelliciera rhizophorae of
Pellicieraceae family is a mangrove plant known as
a good source of secondary metabolites such as

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ISSN: 1827-8620
alkaloids, saponins, and other bioactive
phytochemicals. P.rhizophorae demonstrates
divergent medicinal uses such as to cure skin
infections, tuberculosis, skin wounds, diarrhea,
and parasites, including protozoa and helminthes.
P. rhizophorae act as an antiparasitic agent against
Leishmania donovani, Tripanosoma cruzi, and
Plasmodium falciparum [57].
Pittosporum mannii is a Pittosporaceae family is
a traditional medicinal plant to cure malaria and it
has shown the presence of flavonoids and
saponins. The methanol extract of P. mannii shows
the antiparasitic activity against Leishmania
donovani and Plasmodium falciparum [84].
Laennecia confusa is traditional Mexican medicinal
plants the chloroformic extract have the
antiparasitic activity for Leishmania donovani. The
Asteraceae family possesses antimicrobial,
antiparasitic, and anti-inflammatory bioactivities
[56]. Laennecia confusa is a traditional Mexican
medicinal plant, from which the chloroform
extract have shown antiparasitic activity against
Leishmania donovani. The Asteraceae family is well
known to posses antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and
anti-inflammatory bioactivities [53]. Platycodon
grandiflorum is a plant exert a wide range of
pharmacological activities, including anti-
inflammatory, vasoprotective,
hypocholesterolemic, immunomodulatory,
hypoglycemic, molluscicidal, antifungal, and
antiparasitic functions. P. grandiflorum contain
triterpenoid saponins secondary metabolites of
glycosidic nature [85].
Anti-Diabetic Activity of Saponins
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder mostly
accompanied by long-term complications and
categorized into diabetes type 1 which is a result of
insulin deficiency and diabetes type 2 is due to
insulin resistance that affects a big part of the
world’s global population. Caralluma Europaea is a
medicinal plant biological activity such as
antinociceptive, anti -inflammatory
hepatoprotective and potent antihyperglycemic
properties. The aerial part of shrub juice is used to
treat diabetes, goiter, and cyst, and it is known to
contain bioactive saponins [67]. Prosopis juliflora is
a medicinal plant used as veterinary medicine as
well as antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer,
and antimicrobial activities. This plant has major
antidiabetic activity due to the presence of
alkaloids and saponins. It contains 24-
methylencycloartan-3-one which is proven to be
safe to treat diabetes mellitus instead of using
insulin [89].
Derris reticulate which is known to consist
saponins demonstrates antihyperglycemic activity
by the cytoprotective result on pancreatic cells
and also demonstrates antioxidant activity, and
inhibition of the enzyme α-glucosidase [90].
Semecarpus Anacardium possesses strong anti-
diabetic and antioxidant activity and used for the
treatment of diabetes mellitus and a good source
of natural antioxidants [91]. Tapeinochilus
ananassae, Costus speciosus, and Syzygium Jambos
are the plants with a rich source of Saponin. This
plant exhibit hypoglycemic activity which is
showed in insulin-like effects in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats [92].
Conclusion
Alkaloids and Saponins are undoubtedly a
valuable source and are highly significant lead
molecules for drug development. Alkaloids have
influenced the medicinal research, where the
majority of market available drugs are alkaloid
molecules. Although not very significant, saponins
are starting to play a key role in the medicinal field,
by slowly proving their effectiveness and
applicability in clinical research. This review paper
concludes that alkaloid and saponins are definitely
the most significant bioactive molecules in the
plant secondary metabolites and still are in the
path of research and exploitation to be fully
employed in human health applications.
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Table 1: Reports on the antibacterial activity of alkaloids

Source Compound Activity Reference
Sida acuta Crude alkaloids
Staphylococcus aureus,
Enterococcus faecalis,
Shigella boydii,
Shigella flexneri,
Shigella dysenteriae,
Salmonella typhi,
Salmonella paratyphi,
Escherichia coli
Damintoti karou
et al., 2006 [48]
Sophora alopecuroides Alkaloids Staphylococcus epidermidis
Xue Li et al.,
2006 [49]
Sarcomelicope megistophylla Megistoquinones
Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus epidermidis,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Enterobacter cloacae,
Klebsiella pneumonia

Nikolas fokialakis
et al., 2002 [50]
Anethum graveolens,
Foeniculum vulgare
Crude alkaloids
Shigella flexneri

Gurinder J Kaur
et al., 2009 [51]
Zizyphus oxyphylla Cyclopeptide Alkaloids
Escherichia coli
Bacillus subtilis
Shigella flexeneri
Staphylococcus
aureus
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Salmonella typhi
Waqar Ahmad
Kaleem et al.,
2012 [52]
Piper nigrum,
Telfairia occidentalis,
Vernonia amygdalina

Crude alkaloids
Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter
cloacae,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia
stuartii
Victor Kuete et
al., 2013 [53]

PhOL Venkatesan, et al. 17 (pag 1-20)



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ISSN: 1827-8620



Table 2: Reports on the anti-parasitic activity of alkaloids

Source compound Activity Reference
Albizia schimperiana
Oliv.
Budmunchamines
Leishmania
donovani
Volodymyr Samoylenko
et al., 2009 [62]
Annona coriacea,
Annona crassiflora,
Cissampelos ovalifolia,
Duguetia furfuracea
Isoquinoline alkaloids
Leishmania (L.)
chagasi
A.G. Tempone et al.,
2005 [62]
Prosopis glandulosa; indolizidine alkaloids Leishmania donovani
Aziz Abdur Rahman et
al., 2011 [63]
Prosopis glandulosa
Torr. var. glandulosa.
Indolizidine
Plasmodium
falciparum
Volodymyr Samoylenko
et al., 2009 [59]
Peganum harmala β-carboline Leishmania donovani Rihui Cao et al., 2007 [64]
Annona foetida
pyrimidine-β-carboline
alkaloid
Leishmania
braziliensis.
Emmanoel V. Costa et al.,
2006 [65]

PhOL Venkatesan, et al. 18 (pag 1-20)



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ISSN: 1827-8620



Table 3: Reports on antibacterial activity of saponins




Source Compound Activity Reference
Anethum graveolens,
Foeniculum vulgare,
Trachyspermum ammi
Crude saponin
Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella
flexneri
Gurinder J Kaur et al.,
2009 [50]
Acacia auriculiformis,
Calliandra tergemina,
Peltophorum pterocarpum
Crude saponin
Micrococcus luteus
Staphylococcus aureus
Bacillus cereus
Yik Ling Chew et al.,
2011[86]
Callistemon viminalis Crude saponin
Bacillus cereus,
Bacillus subtilis,
Escherichia coli,
Sarcina lutea
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Salmonella typhi.
Mohamed ZM Salem et
al., 2013 [80]
Clausena heptaphylla Crude saponin
Salmonella typhi,
Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Shigella flexneri,
Shigella sonnei,
Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Md Fakruddin et al.,
2012 [87]
Sechium edule,
Manihot esculinta
Crude saponin
Providencia stuartii,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Escherichia coli, Enterobacter
aerogenes
Enterobacter cloacae
Jaurès AK Noumedem
et al., 2013 [88]
Artemisia chamaemelifolia Crude saponin
Bacillus cereus
Salmonella typhimurium
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al.,
2013 [76]
Colocasia esculenta,
Triumfetta pentandra,
Canarium schweinfurthii,
Annona muricata
Crude saponin
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Enterobacter aerogenes,
Escherichia coli,
Bacillus subtilis,
Salmonella typhi
Joachim K et al., 2016
[74]

PhOL Venkatesan, et al. 19 (pag 1-20)



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ISSN: 1827-8620



Table 4: Reports on antiparasitic activity of saponins

Source Compound Activity Reference
Maesa balansae Triterpene Saponins
Leishmania infantum
Leishmania donovani
Louis Maes et al.,
2003 [83]
Pittosporum mannii
Triterpenoid
Estersaponin
Leishmania donovani
Plasmodium falciparum
Kennedy D
Nyongbela et al.,2013
[84]
Pelliciera rhizophorae Crude saponin
Leishmania donovani
Tripanosoma cruzi, Plasmodium
falciparum,
Dioxelis López et al.,
2015 [57]

Laennecia confusa Crude saponin Leishmania donovani
Mar´ıa G.Mart´ınez
Ruiz et al., 2012[56]
Eclipta prostrata Crude saponin Leishmania donovani
Sujogya Kumar Panda
et al., 2018 [53]

PhOL Venkatesan, et al. 20 (pag 1-20)



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Figure 1: The skeleton structure of a classic alkaloid - caffeine



Figure 2: The skeleton structure of saponin - Chonglou saponin